The Marihuana Problem: An Overview

McGlothlin, William H.; West, Louis Jolyon

doi:10.1176/ajp.125.3.370

Cited by 174 publications

(64 citation statements)

References 2 publications

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“…Regular intake of cannabis by youngsters has been associated with disruptive effects on family life, education, the pursuit of intellectual careers, and job motivation. In fact, the "amotivational syndrome hypothesis" claims that regular marijuana use in young people may contribute to the development of passive, inward-turning, amotivational personality characteristics (McGlothlin and West 1968). Ongoing debates on legalization of cannabinoids have intensified discussions on potential persistent effects of cannabinoids on brain functions, which have not been clearly demonstrated in humans thus far (Pope et al 1995).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Specific attentional dysfunction in adults following early start of cannabis use

et al. 1999

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Rationale and objective:The present study tested the hypothesis that chronic interference by cannabis with endogenous cannabinoid systems during peripubertal development causes specific and persistent brain alterations in humans. As an index of cannabinoid action, visual scanning, along with other attentional functions, was chosen. Visual scanning undergoes a major maturation process around age 12-15 years and, in addition, the visual system is known to react specifically and sensitively to cannabinoids. Methods: From 250 individuals consuming cannabis regularly, 99 healthy pure cannabis users were selected. They were free of any other past or present drug abuse, or history of neuropsychiatric disease. After an interview, physical examination, analysis of routine laboratory parameters, plasma / urine analyses for drugs, and MMPI testing, users and respective controls were subjected to a computer-assisted attention test battery comprising visual scanning, alertness, divided attention, flexibility, and working memory. Results: Of the potential predictors of test performance within the user group, including present age, age of onset of cannabis use, degree of acute intoxication (THC+THCOH plasma levels), and cumulative toxicity (estimated total life dose), an early age of onset turned out to be the only predictor, predicting impaired reaction times exclusively in visual scanning. Early-onset users (onset before age 16; n = 48) showed a significant impairment in reaction times in this function, whereas late-onset users (onset after age 16; n = 51) did not differ from controls (n = 49). Conclusions: These data suggest that beginning cannabis use during early adolescence may lead to enduring effects on specific attentional functions in adulthood. Apparently, vulnerable periods during brain development exist that are subject to persistent alterations by interfering exogenous cannabinoids.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Specific attentional dysfunction in adults following early start of cannabis use

et al. 1999

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“…Such symptomatic features of hebephrenic schizophrenia bear resemblance to chronic cannabinoid psychoses. Although acute use of cannabis can induce diverse types of psychotic state, such as panic reaction, confusional state, paranoid state and mania, [24][25][26] chronic cannabis users often develop an 'amotivational syndrome' [27][28][29][30] typified by a diminution of ambition, productivity and motivation, which are often observed in hebephrenic schizophrenics. In addition, cannabinoid use affects cognitive function such as information processing and planning tasks.…”

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confidence: 99%

CNR1, central cannabinoid receptor gene, associated with susceptibility to hebephrenic schizophrenia

et al. 2002

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To examine the cannabinoid hypothesis for pathogenesis of schizophrenia, we examined two kinds of polymorphisms of the CNR1 gene, which encodes human CB1 receptor, a subclass of central cannabinoid receptors, in schizophrenics and age-matched controls in the Japanese population. Allelic and genotypic distributions of polymorphism 1359G/A at codon 453 in the coding region and AAT triplet repeats in the 3Ј flanking region in the Japanese population were quite different from those in Caucasians. Although the polymorphism 1359G/A was not associated with schizophrenia, the triplet repeat polymorphism of the CNR1 gene was significantly associated with schizophrenia, especially the hebephrenic subtype (P = 0.0028). Hebephrenic schizophrenia showed significantly increased rate of the 9 repeat allele (P = 0.032, OR = 2.30, 95% CI (1.91-2.69)), and decreased rate of the 17 repeat allele (P = 0.011, OR = 0.208, 95% CI (0.098-0.439)). The present findings indicated that certain alleles or genotypes of the CNR1 gene may confer a susceptibility of schizophrenia, especially of the hebephrenic type. Molecular Psychiatry (2002Psychiatry ( ) 7, 515-518. doi:10.1038 The cannabinoid hypothesis for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia is supposed to be based on the clinical facts that abuse of cannabis could precipitate the psychotic state, with hallucinations and delusions resembling schizophrenia 1-4 and worsen positive symptoms of schizophrenia, 5,6 even under regular medication of antipsychotics. 7 Cannabinoid consumption could result in poor outcome and liability to relapse for schizophrenics. [8][9][10] In addition, heavy cannabis users may develop an amotivational syndrome, reminiscent of some of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. 11 A Swedish cohort study showed that cannabis use before 18 years of age raises the incidence rate of schizophrenia six-fold. 12 Another study showed that administration of delta-9-hydrocannabinol to normal volunteers induced cognitive impairment of three dimensions resembling closely that of schizophrenic patients. 13 The hallucinogenic action of cannabis and marijuana mediated the central cannabinoid receptor, G protein-coupled receptor CB1, which was discovered in 1988. 14 CB1 receptors were expressed abundantly throughout the brain, especially in substantia nigra, globus pallidus, hippocampus and cerebellum. 15,16 CB1 receptors are encoded by the CNR1 gene (MIM114610), which was cloned by Matsuda et al in 1992. 17 CB1 is located at 6q14-q15, which was included in a schizophrenia susceptibility locus, 6q13-q26, revealed by Cao et al 18 using two independent series of pedigrees, which was designated by Schizophrenia 5 (SCZ5, OMIM 603175). Recently, two polymorphisms, AAT repeats microsatellite in the 3Ј flanking region and 1359 G/A polymorphism at codon 453 in the coding exon of the CNR1 gene, were reported. 19,20 To examine the cannabinoid hypothesis for schizophrenia, we examined these two polymorphisms in the CNR1 gene of schizophrenia in the Japanese population.Genotypic distribution and a...

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“…Parathesia of the extremities has been reported (2, 10). Complex psychomotor functioning is affected (16,44), and it is not surprising that driving competence is considered to be impaired (4,31).…”

Section: Acute Physical Meetsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The predominant emotional effect of cannabis preparations is euphoria (1,2,10,11,15,20,24,31,44), which mayor may not be accompanied by feelings of well-being (10,20), confidence (20) and adequacy (44). On the other hand there are reports of apprehension (1), more frequently described as anxiety (2,11,12,14,15,27,32,44), reaching a degree of panic (11,25,38) even in experienced users (31).…”

Section: Acute Psychological Effeetsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Toward a Medical Understanding of Marihuana

Schwarz

1969

Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal

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This paper is based on a review of the English language medical literature over the past 35 years on Indian Hemp, with direct reference being made to the more significant articles published during that time. The paucity of direct experimental observation is noted and the difficulties in experimental studies are highlighted by descriptions of the wide variations in the potency of Indian Hemp derivatives. Specific references are provided for the wide range of observations made in relation to acute and chronic physical and psychological effects, personal characteristics of the users and possible factors in causation. It is concluded that marihuana is a poorly defined intoxicant which varies in potency, deteriorates with time and whose chemical composition is largely unknown at present. There are wide variations in human response and the state of intoxication itself carries with it varying degrees of unpleasant physical and psychological experiences. The association between hashish and, to a lesser extent, marihuana and short-term and long-term complications is discussed in relation to complex variables, of which the drug is but one factor.

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The Marihuana Problem: An Overview

Cited by 174 publications

References 2 publications

Specific attentional dysfunction in adults following early start of cannabis use

Specific attentional dysfunction in adults following early start of cannabis use

CNR1, central cannabinoid receptor gene, associated with susceptibility to hebephrenic schizophrenia

Toward a Medical Understanding of Marihuana

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