The Making of Wage Laborers in Nineteenth Century Southern Africa: Magololo Porters and David Livingstone, 1853–1861

Abstract

This essay illuminates the worldwide transition to free labor from various forms of unfree labor by examining that process in the particular conditions of Southern Africa's encounter with Britain. Dr. David Livingstone's servants-whose descendants in Malawi have been called "Magololo," 1 a term used throughout this essay to distinguish them from the "Kololo" conquerors of Bulozi in contemporary Zambia and parts of Namibia-exemplify this global development. Between 1853 and 1861, over a hundred young Magololo men worked as porters, deckhands, and guides and showed Livingstone the very places in southern Africa whose "discovery" (for Britons) made Livingstone famous. Owing tribute labor to their king, Sekeletu, they initially performed these tasks as subjects. But, after Livingstone's return from England in 1858, they labored for wages; they were among the first groups of Africans in the region to make the emblematic modern move from formally unfree labor to formally free labor. This transition, which would form the core conflict of indirect rule in British Africa, radically altered Livingstone's relationship with his guides: They rebelled against him in 1861. This is one side of the story. The other side follows from the fact that one cannot sensibly speak about workers without the story of their employers. Accordingly, this essay revisits the well-known story of Livingstone's life but offers a different perspective than other biographies. It is the first study to combine the long-familiar documentary evidence with oral sources, for the specific purpose of retelling the Livingstone narrative (in its many renderings) from the viewpoint of his relations with the Magololo workers. In that way, it can shed light on the beginnings of the transition to wage labor in this region.

Challenging the Hero Narrative: Moving towards Reparational Citizenship Education

“…It is a relationship underpinned by mutual understanding and respect" and that the "friendship between Scots and Malawians began in 1859, with the warm welcome extended to David Livingstone and his companions when he entered what is now Malawi for the first time". However, this description of friendship ignores the colonial history between Scotland, Britain and Malawi, as well as the complex and sometimes brutal relationship between Livingstone himself and his servants, known as the Magololo, who rebelled against him in 1861 [24]. I return to the story of the Magololo later in the article.…”

“…Mandala's account seeks to recentre the actions of the Magololo in the formation of this relationship, and in the story of Africa's encounters with the British Empire and capitalist labour relations [24]. He reveals the nature of the relationship between Livingstone and the Magololo by drawing on documentary evidence and oral sources.…”

“…This bargain was strategically designed for two reasons: firstly, to enable Sekeletu to occupy the Bakota Highlands owned by the Ndebele, so that he could relocate his people there to avert an outbreak of malaria that threatened his rule. The Ndebele king had a connection with Livingstone's wife, Mary, as her father, Reverend Moffat, was a trusted friend [24]. Secondly, Livingstone had unveiled his plan to "civilise" the Kololo kingdom by introducing Christianity, as well as capitalist relations with Britain and European traders, which was dependent on opening a trade route across Africa [37].…”

“…Another interdependency emerges as Mandala notes that "Livingstone could not have accomplished his mission without the Magololo, who created the possibility for his life to be memorable" [24] (p. 16). While the hero narrative and claims of friendship made by the SMP and the Scottish Government are clearly exaggerated, they are not without basis.…”

“…The Magololo were now seen as troublemakers and were left at the Zambezi while Livingstone continued his ill-fated journey that ended in his failure to establish a British colony. Recounting the day that Livingstone left the Magololo, Mandala notes, "the events of that day became the centerpiece of the founding charter of the Magololo chiefdoms in Malawi" [24] (p. 31). The Magololo subsequently had cordial relations with the British, with the notable exception of conflict with George Fenwick, a former Church of Scotland missionary and employee of the African Lakes Company (ALC).…”