The Intersection of Task-Based Interaction, Task Complexity, and Working Memory

Abstract

The extent to which individual differences in cognitive abilities affect the relationship among task complexity, attention to form, and second language development has been addressed only minimally in the cognition hypothesis literature. The present study explores how reasoning demands in tasks and working memory (WM) capacity predict learners' ability to notice English question structures provided in the form of recasts and how this contributes to subsequent development of English question formation. Eighty-one nonnative speakers of English completed three interactive tasks with a native speaker interlocutor, one WM task, and three oral production tests. Prior to the fi rst interactive task, participants were randomly assigned to a task group (simple or complex). During task performance, all learners were provided with recasts targeting errors in question formation. The results showed that learners' cognitive processes during tasks were in line with the cognitive demands of the tasks, at two complexity levels. The fi ndings suggest that WM was the only signifi cant predictor of the amount of noticing of recasts as well as of learners' question development. With regard to interaction effects between WM and task complexity, high WM learners who carried out a complex version of the tasks benefi tted the most from task-based interaction.Since Long's ( 1996 ) updated interaction hypothesis, there has been a surge in research conducted on the effects of conversational interaction on second language (L2) learning, to the degree that "a robust connection" between interaction and learning is now commonly accepted (Gass & Mackey, 2007 , p. 176; see also Mackey, Abbuhl, & Gass, 2012 , for a review). Learner internal and external factors mediating the positive relationship between interaction and L2 learning have been identifi ed, and the role of task design features in both L2 performance and interactiondriven language learning is being increasingly examined in the fi eld of instructed SLA. Researchers have explored the effects of task complexity on L2 development by testing the predictions of Robinson's ( 2011 ) cognition hypothesis and Skehan's ( 1998 ) trade-off hypothesis. However, very little research has looked into the ways individual learners' cognitive characteristics, such as working memory (WM) capacity, mediate the effects of task complexity on L2 learning. Moreover, from a methodological standpoint, researchers have yet to systematically document evidence of task complexity validation (e.g., Baralt, 2013 ;Gilabert & Barón, 2013 ;Norris, 2010 ;Révész, 2014 ). To address these issues and to test the predictions of the cognition hypothesis, the current study (a) assesses whether task complexity manipulations are in line with learner perceptions and cognitive processes during task completion; (b) examines the relationship between task complexity, WM, and noticing of recasts; and (c) investigates the development of English language questions by L2 learners. BACKGROUND

The Roles of Recasts, Task Complexity, and Aptitude in Child Second Language Development

“…In particular, he predicted that individual differences in cognitive abilities will be increasingly associated with learning as tasks increase in cognitive complexity, resulting in less variation in gains when learners complete tasks with lower cognitive demands than when they perform complex tasks. In line with this prediction, an empirical study by Kim et al (2015) revealed that learners with high working memory who performed tasks with greater cognitive demands benefitted the most from receiving recasts. To date, however, it remains an empirical question whether task complexity affects the relationship between other aptitude components (e.g., phonetic coding and language analytic ability) and the effectiveness of recasts in developing L2 knowledge.…”

“…Drawing on previous research on aptitude-treatment interaction (see Suzuki & DeKeyser, 2017a), one possible explanation for the mixed findings might be that existing studies did not control for individual differences in cognitive abilities such as working memory capacity (cf. Kim et al, 2015) and L2 aptitude. This study aimed to explore this possibility by investigating how aptitude might moderate the link between task complexity and the effectiveness of recasts.…”

“…For both variables, previous studies have exhibited mixed findings. Task complexity has been found to influence the efficacy of recasts; nonetheless, it remains unresolved whether recasts are more beneficial for learners during cognitively simple tasks or complex tasks (Baralt, 2013;Kim, Payant, & Pearson, 2015;Révész, 2009;Révész, Sachs, & Hama, 2014). The findings are also contradictory for the relationship between aptitude and the effectiveness of recasts, with some studies observing evidence for this link (Li, 2013;Trofimovich, Ammar, & Gatbonton, 2007;Yilmaz, 2013) and others yielding no relationship between aptitude and learning through recasts (Sheen, 2007;Yilmaz & Grañena, 2016).…”

“…Drawing on Skehan's model, Révész et al (2014) argued that the provision of recasts may be more effective when learners perform tasks with lower cognitive demands, as the decreased pressure on the conceptualizer may better enable recasts to draw learners' attention to linguistic encoding. The combined effects of recasts and task complexity have been examined only in a handful of studies (Baralt, 2013;Kim et al, 2015;Révész, 2009;Révész et al, 2014). Révész (2009) explored the joint impact of recasts and task complexity on L2 development in the use of the past progressive form.…”

“…The decision-making tasks were considered more cognitively complex because they required reasoning on the part of participants. On the other hand, no reasoning was needed to complete the information transmission tasks, so this task type was expected to pose lower cognitive demands (Baralt, 2013;Kim et al, 2015;Révész et al, 2014;Robinson, 2001Robinson, , 2011. The tasks were piloted with a population similar to the participating children and were found to be age appropriate.…”