The Interpretation of Interaction in Contingency Tables

Simpson, Esther

doi:10.1111/j.2517-6161.1951.tb00088.x

Cited by 1,560 publications

(962 citation statements)

References 6 publications

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“…This case is supposed to be exactly analogous to a model for the evolution of altruism, and also to Simpson's paradox (Simpson 1951). 23 The 'paradox' can be resolved by taking population structure into account in order to acknowledge the effects of higher level selection.…”

Section: The Ramet Hornmentioning

confidence: 99%

Plant individuality: a solution to the demographer’s dilemma

Clarke

2012

Biol Philos

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The problem of plant individuality is something which has vexed botanists throughout the ages, with fashion swinging back and forth from treating plants as communities of individuals (Darwin 1800; Braun and Stone 1853; Münch 1938) to treating them as organisms in their own right, and although the latter view has dominated mainstream thought most recently (Harper 1977; Cook 1985; Ariew and Lewontin 2004), a lively debate conducted mostly in Scandinavian journals proves that the issues are far from being resolved (Tuomi and Vuorisalo 1989b; Fagerström 1992; Pan and Price 2001). In this paper I settle the matter once and for all, by showing which elements of each side are correct.This paper presents a philosophical treatment of the nature of biological individuals, as assessed from the perspective of plants. I argue that plants violate the formal criteria given by the most popular ways of defining individuals, leaving us with the uncomfortable prospect of omitting this kingdom altogether from the domain of objects to which fitnesses can be assigned. I aim to show how universality can be restored to the concept of the individual by zeroing in on control of heritable variance in fitness as the basic criterion that the classical views are all pointing towards. The basic claim is that if plants have mechanisms which determine the hierarchical level at which selection is able to act, then they should qualify as

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Section: The Ramet Hornmentioning

confidence: 99%

Plant individuality: a solution to the demographer’s dilemma

Clarke

2012

Biol Philos

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“…In a condensed table, some extraneous association between the remaining variables may be introduced or an original relationship between certain variables may be lost and/or the monotonicity of certain dependence between variables may also be reversed. This paradox, due to Simpson (1951), known as Simpson's paradox. See, also, Lindley and Novick (1981) and Shapiro (1982) and Cox and Wermuth (2003) for more examples.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 96%

Some collapsibility results for n-dimensional contingency tables

Vellaisamy

Vijay

2007

AISM

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“…Thus, investigators aggregate individuals by stratifying, by assuming a specific covariate relationship, or by using hierarchical modeling with random individual effects (Manton et al 1981;Cohen 1986;Cam et al 2002;Cooch et al 2002;Link et al 2002;Nichols 2002). The danger in these approaches based on aggregation is that we never know which variables are most closely associated with fitness variation, and if we make a mistake and select an irrelevant variable as the basis for aggregation, we can be easily misled (Simpson 1951;Cohen 1986). Nevertheless, careful selection of variables likely to be associated with fitness variation for use in subsequent analyses based on aggregations of individuals is the best approach available to us for observational studies of variation (Nichols 2002).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 97%

Individual quality, survival variation and patterns of phenotypic selection on body condition and timing of nesting in birds

Blums

Nichols²,

Hines³

et al. 2005

Oecologia

118

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Questions about individual variation in "quality" and fitness are of great interest to evolutionary and population ecologists. Such variation can be investigated using either a random effects approach or an approach that relies on identifying observable traits that are themselves correlated with fitness components. We used the latter approach with data from 1,925 individual females of three species of ducks (tufted duck, Aythya fuligula; common pochard, Aythya ferina; northern shoveler, Anas clypeata) sampled on their breeding grounds at Engure Marsh, Latvia, for over 15 years. Based on associations with reproductive output, we selected two traits, one morphological (relative body condition) and one behavioral (relative time of nesting), that can be used to characterize individual females over their lifetimes. We then asked whether these traits were related to annual survival probabilities of nesting females. We hypothesized quadratic, rather than monotonic, relationships based loosely on ideas about the likely action of stabilizing selection on these two traits. Parameters of these relationships were estimated directly using ultrastructural models embedded within capture-recapture-band-recovery models. Results provided evidence that both traits were related to survival in the hypothesized manner. For all three species, females that tended to nest earlier than the norm exhibited the highest survival rates, but very early nesters experienced reduced survival and late nesters showed even lower survival. For shovelers, females in average body condition showed the highest survival, with lower survival rates exhibited by both heavy and light birds. For common pochard and tufted duck, the highest survival rates were associated with birds of slightly above-average condition, with somewhat lower survival for very heavy birds and much lower survival for birds in relatively poor condition. Based on results from this study and previous work on reproduction, we conclude that nest initiation date and body condition covary with both reproductive and survival components of fitness. These associations lead to a positive covariance of these two fitness components within individuals and to the conclusion that these two traits are indeed correlates of individual quality.

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The Interpretation of Interaction in Contingency Tables

Cited by 1,560 publications

References 6 publications

Plant individuality: a solution to the demographer’s dilemma

Plant individuality: a solution to the demographer’s dilemma

Some collapsibility results for n-dimensional contingency tables

Individual quality, survival variation and patterns of phenotypic selection on body condition and timing of nesting in birds

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