The Influence of the Urban Environment on Mental Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Focus on Air Pollution and Migration—A Narrative Review

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused a crisis worldwide, due to both its public health impact and socio-economic consequences. Mental health was consistently affected by the pandemic, with the emergence of newly diagnosed psychiatric disorders and the exacerbation of pre-existing ones. Urban areas were particularly affected by the virus spread. In this review, we analyze how the urban environment may influence mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic, considering two factors that profoundly characterize urbanization: air pollution and migration. Air pollution serves as a possibly risk factor for higher viral spread and infection severity in the context of urban areas and it has also been demonstrated to play a role in the development of serious mental illnesses and their relapses. The urban environment also represents a complex social context where minorities such as migrants may live in poor hygienic conditions and lack access to adequate mental health care. A global rethinking of the urban environment is thus required to reduce the impact of these factors on mental health. This should include actions aimed at reducing air pollution and combating climate change, promoting at the same time a more inclusive society in a sustainable development perspective.

Unequal impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health: Role of the neighborhood environment

“…Many studies have pointed out the capacity of cities to prevent and control the pandemic as an aspect of urban resilience, and highlighted the important role of urban planning and urban governance in enhancing the urban resilience against COVID-19 pandemic ( Allam and Jones, 2020 ; Chen et al., 2021a ; Gaisie et al., 2022 ; Megahed and Ghoneim, 2020 ). In addition to the harm of the coronavirus itself, the increasing mental illness due to the pandemic has also become an important health issue ( Menculini et al., 2021 ). The instability and uncertainty associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdown policy, and other economic and social risks have created instability and uncertainty.…”

“…During the COVID-19 pandemic, minorities and vulnerable groups have faced more mental health issues than the general population ( Aragona et al., 2020 ). This is partially due to their socio-economic disadvantages, but also because of their lower levels of accessibility to facilities and services (e.g., health care services) ( Menculini et al., 2021 ).…”

“…There are all factors that increase the risk of mental health problems ( Adhanom Ghebreyesus, 2020 ). In particular, residents in megacities may have experienced a greater mental health impact than those in small towns and rural areas ( Menculini et al., 2021 ; Ziebold and Mari, 2020 ). Big cities have high population density and relatively crowded housing, leading to a high risk of infection and strict lockdown policy ( Ren et al., 2020 ).…”

Impact of COVID‐19 on the mental health in a cohort of Italian rehabilitation healthcare workers

“…The COVID-19 pandemic has had a strong impact on people's lives all over the world, affecting their health, minds, and habits. [1][2][3] The disruption of normal life has significantly impacted the mental health of the individuals; in detail, mental health might influence the personal and social functioning of individuals, justifying the importance of intervening upstream to promote mental health before mental illness occurs. 4 The rapid spread of the infection and the severity of the COVID-19 caused a partial collapse of the sanitary systems in many countries of the world.…”

Prognosticating COVID Therapeutic Responses: Ambiguous Loss and Disenfranchised Grief

“…The health emergency caused at the societal level has further marginalized ethnic minorities disproportionately, and the urban environment may critically influence the mental health of minorities during the pandemic ( 10 ). Pierce et al ( 11 ) recommend that when considering the longitudinal impact of COVID-19 on mental health recommends prioritizing the needs of young people, women and pre-school children, and the authors wish to draw attention to the BAME aspect in light of this.…”