The Influence of Meal Frequency and Timing on Health in Humans: The Role of Fasting

Abstract

The influence of meal frequency and timing on health and disease has been a topic of interest for many years. While epidemiological evidence indicates an association between higher meal frequencies and lower disease risk, experimental trials have shown conflicting results. Furthermore, recent prospective research has demonstrated a significant increase in disease risk with a high meal frequency (≥6 meals/day) as compared to a low meal frequency (1–2 meals/day). Apart from meal frequency and timing we also have to consider breakfast consumption and the distribution of daily energy intake, caloric restriction, and night-time eating. A central role in this complex scenario is played by the fasting period length between two meals. The physiological underpinning of these interconnected variables may be through internal circadian clocks, and food consumption that is asynchronous with natural circadian rhythms may exert adverse health effects and increase disease risk. Additionally, alterations in meal frequency and meal timing have the potential to influence energy and macronutrient intake.A regular meal pattern including breakfast consumption, consuming a higher proportion of energy early in the day, reduced meal frequency (i.e., 2–3 meals/day), and regular fasting periods may provide physiological benefits such as reduced inflammation, improved circadian rhythmicity, increased autophagy and stress resistance, and modulation of the gut microbiota

Effect of Dose and Timing of Burdock (Arctium lappa) Root Intake on Intestinal Microbiota of Mice

“…In addition, food consumption under unsynchronized circadian rhythm is bad for health and increases the risk of disease. In humans and mice, the energy consumption in the early phase of the active period with constant fasting time decreases inflammation, improves the circadian rhythm, increases the resistance to autophagy and stress, and controls the intestinal microbiota [52]. These papers have suggested that morning is a good time for production of a clear reaction.…”

Gender Differences in the Association between Sleep Duration and Cardiometabolic Risk: A Cross-sectional Study

“…Ogilvie RP et al reported that individuals who go to bed at 12:30 am or later tended to skip breakfast as compared with those who go to bed at 10:30 pm or earlier [28]. In addition, breakfast skipping has been reported to be associated with elevated serum LDL-C levels and increased body weight and body fat mass [29,30]. In the present study, the men who slept for ³8 h may have had late bedtimes, and bad eating habits could have been involved in the deterioration of the serum LDL-C and non-HDL-C levels and exacerbation of abdominal obesity in these men.…”

Meal Patterns and Changes in Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Children: A Longitudinal Analysis

“…Previous studies have shown that skipping meals, especially breakfast, was associated with a higher prevalence of CMR factors [15][16][17], whereas a higher meal frequency was associated with a lower risk of obesity, high cholesterol, and diabetes in adults [18][19][20]. More recent research in adults has shown that three to four meals per day were associated with lower CMR, compared with one to two, or six or more meals per day [13]. Some studies have demonstrated that a late-night meal is associated with poorer diet quality and adiposity among adults [21,22].…”

“…Moderate fat intake at lunch was associated with a lower increase in CMRS. Meal patterns driven by energy were not significantly associated with CMR factors; however, a low carbohydrate-high protein-moderate fat lunch and low carbohydrate-high protein dinner were associated with favorable changes in CMRS in children.Evidence from recent studies in adults has shown that meal patterns play an important role in the development of CMR factors [12,13]. Eating three meals (breakfast, lunch, and dinner) plus snacks per day is a norm and may be an optimal choice for health [14].…”

“…Evidence from recent studies in adults has shown that meal patterns play an important role in the development of CMR factors [12,13]. Eating three meals (breakfast, lunch, and dinner) plus snacks per day is a norm and may be an optimal choice for health [14].…”