The Impact of Wildfires on Mental Health: A Scoping Review

Abstract

One of the many consequences of climate change is an increase in the frequency, severity, and, thus, impact of wildfires across the globe. The destruction and loss of one’s home, belongings, and surrounding community, and the threat to personal safety and the safety of loved ones can have significant consequences on survivors’ mental health, which persist for years after. The objective of this scoping review was to identify primary studies examining the impact of wildfires on mental health and to summarize findings for PTSD, depression, anxiety, and substance use. Literature searches on Pubmed and Embase were conducted in February and April of 2021, respectively, with no date restrictions. A total of 254 studies were found in the two database searches, with 60 studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Three other studies were identified and included based on relevant in-text citations during data abstraction. The results show an increased rate of PTSD, depression, and generalized anxiety at several times of follow-up post-wildfire, from the subacute phase, to years after. An increased rate of mental health disorders post-wildfire has been found in both the adult and pediatric population, with a number of associated risk factors, the most significant being characteristics of the wildfire trauma itself. Several new terms have arisen in the literature secondary to an increased awareness and understanding of the impact of natural disasters on mental health, including ecological grief, solastalgia, and eco-anxiety. There are a number of patient factors and systemic changes that have been identified post-wildfire that can contribute to resilience and recovery.

Cumulative trauma from multiple natural disasters increases mental health burden on residents of Fort McMurray

“…A previous study revealed that depression predicts low resilience in trauma-exposed individuals (Bonanno et al, 2007 ), and a history of anxiety was a risk factor of low resilience 18 months after the Fort McMurray wildfire (Moosavi et al, 2019 ). Individuals with high resilience scores after experiencing a wildfire had lower scores on screening measures for mental health disorders, including PTSD, depression, and anxiety (Brown et al, 2019b ; Silveira et al, 2021 ; To et al, 2021 ). A study in the United Kingdom after a flood reported several people suffered from anxiety and stress in different forms, which reduced resilience (Carroll, Morbey, Balogh, & Araoz, 2009 ).…”

“…It is predicted that climate change, especially the rise in extreme temperature, is bound to increase weather-related natural disasters (Myers, 2016 ), thus creating long-lasting issues for affected communities. The risk to personal safety and that of loved ones, as well as damage or loss of property, can have a profound effect on survivors’ mental health for a long time (To, Eboreime, & Agyapong, 2021 ). It can also lead to both immediate and perpetual mental health complications such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Agyapong et al, 2019 ; Agyapong et al, 2020 ; Briere & Elliott, 2000 ; Goldmann & Galea, 2014 ).…”

“…Thirty-three percent of respondents showed symptoms of probable PTSD after a wildfire in California (Psarros, Theleritis, Martinaki, & Bergiannaki, 2008 ). Higher prevalence of depression in adults have also been reported after wildfire (33% less than 1year; 10.9% after 3–4years), and this can perpetuate for up to 10 years (8.3% 10years) (Bryant et al, 2021 ; Marshall, Schell, Elliott, Rayburn, & Jaycox, 2007 ; To et al, 2021 ). A cross-sectional study of an adult population in Greece 6 months after the wildfires reported a significantly high prevalence of depression, anxiety, somatisation, and phobic anxiety symptoms (Agyapong et al, 2018 ; To et al, 2021 ).…”

“…Similarly, depression predicts low resilience in trauma-exposed individuals (Bonanno, Galea, Bucciarelli, & Vlahov, 2007 ). In addition, ongoing adverse life events can contribute to an individual’s risk of developing psychopathology post-trauma and shows how cumulative stressors may worsen human resilience (To et al, 2021 ). Consequently, with the exposure to multiple traumatic disasters, it is of interest if residents exposed to two or three traumatic disasters experienced mental health impacts that are in any way different from mental health impacts experienced by other residents of the city who may have experienced only one traumatic disaster.…”

“…The estimated cost of the wildfire was CAD $10 billion, with CAD $3.7 billion paid out by insurance providers, and the cost is expected to rise by 2026 (Weber, 2017 ). There was a reported rise in the prevalence of mental health disorders after exposure to the wildfire in both young and old residents of Fort McMurray, with wildfire trauma being the most important risk factor (Agyapong et al, 2018 ; Agyapong et al, 2020 ; Brown et al, 2019a , 2021 ; Moosavi et al, 2019 ; To et al, 2021 ; Vio et al, 2018). In April of 2020, Fort McMurray was further hit with severe flooding, which caused a lot of disruption to livelihood damage to property.…”