The Impact of the Milk Glycobiome on the Neonate Gut Microbiota

Abstract

Human milk is a complete source of nourishment for the infant. Exclusive breastfeeding not only sustains the infant’s development but also guides the proliferation of a protective intestinal microbiota. Among the many components of milk that modulate the infant gut microbiota, the milk glycans, which comprise free oligosaccharides, glycoproteins, and glycolipids, are increasingly recognized as drivers of microbiota development and overall gut health. These glycans may display pleiotropic functions, conferring protection against infectious diseases and also acting as prebiotics, selecting for the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria. The prebiotic effect of milk glycans has direct application to prevention of diseases such as necrotizing enterocolitis, a common and devastating disease of preterm infants. In this article, we review the impact of the human (and bovine) milk glycome on gut health through establishment of a milk-oriented microbiota in the neonate.

Influence of Feeding Type on Gut Microbiome Development in Hospitalized Preterm Infants

“…Furthermore, fatty acids and monoglycerides rendered from the hydrolysis of milk triglycerides also have antimicrobial properties that support the infant’s innate immunity against Giardia lamblia, H. influenzae , group B streptococci, Staphylococcus epidermidis , respiratory syncytial virus, and herpes simplex virus type 1 (Hamosh, 1998; Pacheco et al, 2015). Bifidus factor and other bioactive components, prevent the growth of pathogenic microorganisms indirectly by promoting the growth of probiotic bacteria like Lactobacillus bifidus (Koenig, de Albuquerque Diniz, Barbosa, & Vaz, 2005; Landers & Hartmann, 2013; McPherson & Wagner, 2001; Silvestre, Ruiz, Martínez-Costa, Plaza, & López, 2008; Untalan, Keeney, Palkowetz, Rivera, & Goldman, 2009).…”

“…In term infants, MOM has been associated with favorable alteration of gut microbiome, such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus , in addition to pathogenic inhibition (Jost, Lacroix, Braegger, & Chassard, 2015). Recent evidence also points to the milk glycobiome as an influential factor in gut microbiome development (Newburg & Morelli, 2015; Pacheco, Barile, Underwood, & Mills, 2015). The glycobiome is comprised of a complex array of carbohydrates commonly termed human milk oligosaccharides with varied structure and linkage (Pacheco et al, 2015).…”

“…Recent evidence also points to the milk glycobiome as an influential factor in gut microbiome development (Newburg & Morelli, 2015; Pacheco, Barile, Underwood, & Mills, 2015). The glycobiome is comprised of a complex array of carbohydrates commonly termed human milk oligosaccharides with varied structure and linkage (Pacheco et al, 2015). Human milk oligosaccharides have been reported to contribute to optimal microbiome development through the inhibition of potentially pathogenic microbes (Gonia et al, 2015; Manco et al, 2010; Neu, 2013; Putignani et al, 2014).…”

Milk Glycans and Their Interaction with the Infant-Gut Microbiota

“…Barboza et al (2012) demonstrated that the changing glycosylation of lactoferrin throughout lactation modulated its interaction with pathogens. Secretory IgA (sIgA), a predominant antibody in human milk with a known mechanism for pathogen clearance (Liu & Newburg 2013), is also a glycosylated protein with both N -linkages and O -linkages (Pacheco et al 2015). K-casein has been shown to prevent Helicobacter pylori from binding to the gastric mucosa (Stromqvist et al 1995).…”

Enterococcus faecalisreadily colonizes the entire gastrointestinal tract and forms biofilms in a germ-free mouse model

“…14,15 Little is known about the mechanisms enterococci employ to facilitate GI tract colonization; this is true in the normal state as well as in dysbiotic hosts. 16 Due mostly to the transient, flow-through nature of the GI tract, whether E. faecalis forms biofilms in the mammalian gut has been a matter of some controversy.…”