The Impact of Practicing Open- vs. Closed-Skill Sports on Executive Functions—A Meta-Analytic and Systematic Review with a Focus on Characteristics of Sports

Abstract

Exercise modes can be categorized based on the skills required (open vs. closed skills), which implicates various demands on cognitive skills, especially executive functions (EFs). Thus, their practice may have varying effects on EFs. There is a lack of detailed analysis of cognitive requirements and suitable classification of sports. It is hypothesized that the amount and type of cognitive requirements of sports lead to small effect sizes when comparing open-skill exercising (OSE) and closed-skill exercising (CSE) athletes. The current meta-analysis evaluates the variances in EFs skills caused by particular sport modes. Four research databases (Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, PsychINFO) were searched for cross-sectional studies in which the authors compare the performance in EF tasks of OSE and CSE athletes. Risk of bias assessment was conducted using funnel plots and two reviewer selection process (overall and subgroup analysis; low risk of publication and selection bias). A total of 19 studies were included, revealing an overall effect size of Hedge’s g = 0.174 (p = 0.157), favoring OSE for the development of EFs. The subgroup analysis revealed the effects for the subdomains of EFs (cognitive flexibility: Hedge’s g = 0.210 > inhibitory control: Hedge’s g = 0.191 > working memory: Hedge’s g = 0.138; p > 0.05), which could be characterized as low to moderate. The hypothesis that studies with the smallest effect sizes compare sport modes with similar cognitive demands was rejected. The paper discusses the differentiation of sports into OSE and CSE and presents new approaches for their categorization.

The Lateralization of Spatial Cognition in Table Tennis Players: Neuroplasticity in the Dominant Hemisphere

“…Among athletes engaged in inhibitory tasks [ 47 ], the increase in P300 amplitude may be related to the mobilization of early resources, the conservation of late conscious resources, and the inhibition of attention to stimuli unrelated to the sports process (in the sports context). This effect improves athletes’ performance and helps them actively adapt to rapidly changing sports situations [ 48 , 49 ]. In other words, the high neural efficiency of athletes is reflected in the reduction in resource input during pre-processing, which ensures that there are enough resources for late-stage advanced cognitive control.…”

Preventive Strategies for Cognitive Decline and Dementia: Benefits of Aerobic Physical Activity, Especially Open-Skill Exercise

“…In contrast, CSE is performed in a relatively stable and predictable environment in which motor movements follow set patterns. CSE-related skills tend to be self-paced as there are fewer cognitive demands and decision-making requirements [ 21 , 22 , 49 ] ( Table 3 ).…”

“…CSE is further classified into categories 1 and 2, whereas OSE is classified into categories 3 and 4 [ 49 ]. In category 1 of CSE, the form of movement is fairly fixed for the specific type of sport, and the environmental and task requirements are primarily constant during the execution of the movement (e.g., gymnastics).…”

Self-Report versus Neuropsychological Tests for Examining Executive Functions in Youth Soccer Athletes—A Cross-Sectional Study

“…Previous studies have provided evidence that experts in sports have superior EFs compared to non-athletes (for review, see [ 3 ]). Furthermore, open-skill sports (i.e., nature and combat) tend to have the most significant positive influence on EFs (for review, see [ 4 ]). Sports such as soccer place high demands on the EFs because the athletes regularly have to adapt flexibly to situations (cognitive flexibility), stop actions at short notice (inhibition), or make situation-relevant information quickly available (working memory; [ 4 ]).…”

“…Furthermore, open-skill sports (i.e., nature and combat) tend to have the most significant positive influence on EFs (for review, see [ 4 ]). Sports such as soccer place high demands on the EFs because the athletes regularly have to adapt flexibly to situations (cognitive flexibility), stop actions at short notice (inhibition), or make situation-relevant information quickly available (working memory; [ 4 ]). There have been previous studies with different topics on EFs in youth sports, such as EFs in relation to physical performance [ 5 ] or EFs as diagnostic measures [ 6 ].…”