The Impact of Milk and Its Components on Epigenetic Programming of Immune Function in Early Life and Beyond: Implications for Allergy and Asthma

Abstract

Specific and adequate nutrition during pregnancy and early life is an important factor in avoiding non-communicable diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancers, and chronic allergic diseases. Although epidemiologic and experimental studies have shown that nutrition is important at all stages of life, it is especially important in prenatal and the first few years of life. During the last decade, there has been a growing interest in the potential role of epigenetic mechanisms in the increasing health problems associated with allergic disease. Epigenetics involves several mechanisms including DNA methylation, histone modifications, and microRNAs which can modify the expression of genes. In this study, we focus on the effects of maternal nutrition during pregnancy, the effects of the bioactive components in human and bovine milk, and the environmental factors that can affect early life (i.e., farming, milk processing, and bacterial exposure), and which contribute to the epigenetic mechanisms underlying the persistent programming of immune functions and allergic diseases. This knowledge will help to improve approaches to nutrition in early life and help prevent allergies in the future.

Non–IgE- or Mixed IgE/Non–IgE-Mediated Gastrointestinal Food Allergies in the First Years of Life: Old and New Tools for Diagnosis

“…Classical epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation and histone modifications, have been shown to be involved in the development of IgE-mediated food allergies such as CMA [ 171 , 172 , 173 ]. Differences in DNA methylation in different gene pathways have been observed in children who subsequently developed an IgE-mediated food allergy [ 174 ], suggesting their possible role as potential biomarkers.…”

“…In recent years, a common inflammatory pathway has been hypothesized for allergic diseases, characterized by a “type-2 inflammation” involving different cells besides the classic Th2 cells. These cells, from both the innate and adaptive systems, produce a unique Th set of so-called ‘type-2′ cytokines, the effectors of the allergic response [ 172 , 173 , 174 , 175 , 176 ]. This inflammatory pathway has been implicated in a wide range of allergic diseases, including atopic dermatitis, asthma and eosinophilic esophagitis [ 176 ].…”

Lifetime Impact of Cow’s Milk on Overactivation of mTORC1: From Fetal to Childhood Overgrowth, Acne, Diabetes, Cancers, and Neurodegeneration

“…In fact, increasing evidence presented by studies in humans and animal models supports the view that MEX and their miRs are bioavailable and reach the systemic circulation [ 134 , 136 , 145 , 146 , 147 ], and modify gene expression of the milk recipient [ 132 , 148 , 149 , 150 ]. MEX miR-mediated changes of epigenetic regulation appear to be beneficial for growth and maturation of the infant [ 143 , 151 , 152 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 ], but may exert adverse health effects during long-term exposure associated with persistent overactivation of mTORC1 ( Figure 2 ) [ 159 ].…”

Diet Modifications in Primary Prevention of Asthma. Where Do We Stand?

“…The components of raw milk (PUFA, bacteria, proteins and vitamins) may also act via epigenetic mechanisms. Changes in gene expression by non-DNA-encoded alterations such as DNA methylations, histone modifications and exosomes immune influence via microRNAs seem to be some of the most important anti-asthmatic and anti-allergic pathways of action [ 24 ]. Short non-coding RNA sequences (miRNAs) regulate post-transcriptional gene expression, exerting an immune regulatory function and interfering in allergic inflammation.…”