“…It was well documented that the bacteria, viruses, and chemicals within drinking water sources or agricultural soil posed a great threat to human health ( Gerba, 1999 ; Gerba and Bitton, 1984 ; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013 ; Hammoud et al, 2018 ; Jamieson et al, 2002 ; Leung et al, 2020 ; Mamera and Van Tol, 2018 ; Mamera et al, 2020 ; Nganje et al, 2020 ; Tallon et al, 2005 ). For example, wells in nearby septic tanks and pit latrines were found to be significantly contaminated in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, leading to more than 80% of wells contained with Escherichia coli and 58% of wells with nitrate levels higher than WHO guidelines ( Ngasala et al, 2019 ).…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Thus, it was seemly reasonable that the SARS-CoV-2 survives in nature could be a potential sustainable source of infection ( Fig. 2 ), particularly for those people in rural areas who relied on untreated drinking groundwater sources ( Hammoud et al, 2018 ; Mamera and Van Tol, 2018 ; Rosa and Clasen, 2010 ) and who practiced open defecation ( Adzawla et al, 2020 ), the increased SARS-CoV-2 load in the natural environment might increase the possibility of human infection. Fig.…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…According to the available literature, SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in wastewater samples from the Netherlands ( Lodder and de Roda Husman, 2020 ), Australia ( Ahmed et al, 2020 ), France ( Wurtzer et al, 2020 ), USA ( Wu et al, 2020a ), Italy ( La Rosa et al, 2020b ), and Spain ( Randazzo et al, 2020 ), we inferred that SARS-CoV-2 contaminated water might be a potential sustainable source of infection, thus threatening the local individuals' health. Previous studies have shown that water contaminated by bacteria, viruses, and chemicals was closely related to the use of pit latrines and septic tanks ( Gerba, 1999 ; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013 ; Hammoud et al, 2018 ; Ngasala et al, 2019 ). Herein, this study aims to comprehensively evaluate the potential risks of COVID-19 in rural China through the investigation of rural geographical environment, the use of pit latrines, and the villagers' daily life, then try to find out the solutions.…”
According to the latest reports, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which caused coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), was successfully isolated from the excreta (stool and urine) of COVID-19 patients, suggesting SARS-CoV-2 could be transmitted through excreta contaminated water. As pit latrines and the use of untreated excreta as fertilizer were common in rural China, we surveyed 27 villages of Jiangxi and Hubei provinces and found that pit latrines could be a potential source of SARS-CoV-2 water pollution. Recently, bats have been widely recognized as the source of SARS-CoV-2. There were many possible intermediate hosts of SARS-CoV-2, including pangolin, snake, bird and fish, but which one was still not clear exactly. Here, we proposed a hypothesis to illustrate the mechanism that SARS-CoV-2 might spread from the excreta of infected humans in pit latrines to potential animal hosts, thus becoming a sustainable source of infection in rural China. Therefore, we believe that abolishing pit latrines and banning the use of untreated excreta as fertilizer can improve the local living environment and effectively prevent COVID-19 and other potential waterborne diseases that could emanate from the excreta of infected persons. Although this study focused on rural areas in China, the results could also be applied to low-income countries, especially in Africa.
“…It was well documented that the bacteria, viruses, and chemicals within drinking water sources or agricultural soil posed a great threat to human health ( Gerba, 1999 ; Gerba and Bitton, 1984 ; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013 ; Hammoud et al, 2018 ; Jamieson et al, 2002 ; Leung et al, 2020 ; Mamera and Van Tol, 2018 ; Mamera et al, 2020 ; Nganje et al, 2020 ; Tallon et al, 2005 ). For example, wells in nearby septic tanks and pit latrines were found to be significantly contaminated in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, leading to more than 80% of wells contained with Escherichia coli and 58% of wells with nitrate levels higher than WHO guidelines ( Ngasala et al, 2019 ).…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Thus, it was seemly reasonable that the SARS-CoV-2 survives in nature could be a potential sustainable source of infection ( Fig. 2 ), particularly for those people in rural areas who relied on untreated drinking groundwater sources ( Hammoud et al, 2018 ; Mamera and Van Tol, 2018 ; Rosa and Clasen, 2010 ) and who practiced open defecation ( Adzawla et al, 2020 ), the increased SARS-CoV-2 load in the natural environment might increase the possibility of human infection. Fig.…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…According to the available literature, SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in wastewater samples from the Netherlands ( Lodder and de Roda Husman, 2020 ), Australia ( Ahmed et al, 2020 ), France ( Wurtzer et al, 2020 ), USA ( Wu et al, 2020a ), Italy ( La Rosa et al, 2020b ), and Spain ( Randazzo et al, 2020 ), we inferred that SARS-CoV-2 contaminated water might be a potential sustainable source of infection, thus threatening the local individuals' health. Previous studies have shown that water contaminated by bacteria, viruses, and chemicals was closely related to the use of pit latrines and septic tanks ( Gerba, 1999 ; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013 ; Hammoud et al, 2018 ; Ngasala et al, 2019 ). Herein, this study aims to comprehensively evaluate the potential risks of COVID-19 in rural China through the investigation of rural geographical environment, the use of pit latrines, and the villagers' daily life, then try to find out the solutions.…”
According to the latest reports, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which caused coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), was successfully isolated from the excreta (stool and urine) of COVID-19 patients, suggesting SARS-CoV-2 could be transmitted through excreta contaminated water. As pit latrines and the use of untreated excreta as fertilizer were common in rural China, we surveyed 27 villages of Jiangxi and Hubei provinces and found that pit latrines could be a potential source of SARS-CoV-2 water pollution. Recently, bats have been widely recognized as the source of SARS-CoV-2. There were many possible intermediate hosts of SARS-CoV-2, including pangolin, snake, bird and fish, but which one was still not clear exactly. Here, we proposed a hypothesis to illustrate the mechanism that SARS-CoV-2 might spread from the excreta of infected humans in pit latrines to potential animal hosts, thus becoming a sustainable source of infection in rural China. Therefore, we believe that abolishing pit latrines and banning the use of untreated excreta as fertilizer can improve the local living environment and effectively prevent COVID-19 and other potential waterborne diseases that could emanate from the excreta of infected persons. Although this study focused on rural areas in China, the results could also be applied to low-income countries, especially in Africa.
“…A similar result of high NH 4 -N was also reported by Sbarbati et al [55], where they suggested the rapid and continuous loading of organic matter (natural or artificial) without sufficient retention time later transformed into NH 4 -N by microbial oxidation. According to the study, the lack of rehabilitation of leaky sewer pipes, continual use of pit latrines, and improper construction of septic tanks [56] might be the major causes contamination in the Kathmandu valley. On the other hand, the lower NH 4 -N concentration during the wet season, however, could be due to the oxidation of NH 4 -N from the oxygen-enriched infiltration activated by oxidized Fe 2+ and nitrifying bacteria (Equations (4) and (5)).…”
Section: Factors Controlling Nh 4 -N In Shallow Groundwatermentioning
: The increasing concentration of nitrogen compounds in the groundwater is of a growing concern in terms of human health and groundwater quality. Although an excess of nitrogen compounds in the groundwater of the Kathmandu Valley has been reported, the seasonal variations of the fate of the nitrogen compounds and their relationships to the subsurface sediments are unknown. In this study, spatially distributed shallow dug well samples were collected during both the dry and wet seasons of 2016, and the nitrogen compound, chloride (Cl−), and iron (Fe2+) concentrations were analyzed. Two shallow dug wells and one deep tube well were monitored monthly for 2 years. Although NH4-N concentrations were similar in the clay-dominated areas during both seasons (1 and 0.9 mg-N/L), they were lower in the gravel-dominated areas during wet season (1.8 > 0.6 mg-N/L). The NO3-N concentration differed depending upon the soil type which increased during the wet season (clay 4.9 < 13.6 mg-N/L and gravel 2.5 < 6.8 mg-N/L). The Fe2+ concentration, however, was low during the wet season (clay 2.7 > 0.4 mg/L and gravel 2.8 > 0.3 mg/L). Long-term analysis showed higher fluctuation of nitrogen compounds in the gravel-bearing areas than in the clay-bearing areas.
“…The process of emptying pits is not only hazardous to users and the environment but can also be costly for users [4]. Furthermore, pits may leach pathogens and chemical contaminants into groundwater used for drinking water [5].…”
Tiger Toilets use a worm-based ecosystem to degrade human waste and have recently been demonstrated as a cost-effective innovation in on-site sanitation. The benefits over traditional pit latrines include slower fill rate, fewer odours, and safer emptying. However, a question remains around how to measure the rate of accumulation of vermi-compost and predict the fill rate into the future. In this study, fifteen Tiger Toilets of varying installation ages in the villages of Jejuri, Bhalgudi and Walhe/Adachiwadi, in Maharashtra province, India were investigated to determine the rate of filling. A laser measure was used to define cross-sections of the depth to vermi-compost layers within the Tiger Toilet digesters. Bench-scale column tests were used to estimate liquid infiltration rates from the digesters into the surrounding soils. Changes over time in the interior digester conditions were photographed and a video camera was installed in selected digesters to confirm and observe the worm activity in situ under red light. Calculated fill rates of the Tiger Toilets were significantly lower compared to estimated fill rates of traditional pit latrines of a similar size and usage rate. The infiltration of the liquid fraction of the waste into the surrounding soil was observed to be a key factor in filling.
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