The Impact of COVID-19 on Cognitive Development and Executive Functioning in Adolescents: A First Exploratory Investigation

Abstract

Background: The rapid expansion and severity of the COVID-19 contagion has had negative physical and psychological health implications for millions of people around the world, but even more so among children and adolescents. Given the severity of the situation and the small number of studies on the direct influence of viral infection on the cognitive development within adolescents, the present study aims at understanding the consequences of contracting the virus and being hospitalized in relation to cognitive functioning, in particular, for executive functioning, among adolescents. Methods: To all subjects included in the sample, divided into four groups based on the severity of the COVID-19 infection, were administered the WISC-IV in order to evaluate the global cognitive functioning, and subsequently, the subtests Courses and Tower of London (ToL), both part of the BVN 12–18, were administered for the evaluation of executive operation. Results: Our analyses showed that between subjects who did not contract the viral infection and those who contracted it in an asymptomatic form, there are no significant differences in cognitive functioning, but only in executive functioning. Furthermore, in both hospitalized and non-hospitalized subjects, we found lower scores especially for WM skills, while IQ scores are in a medium range. Conclusion: the present study shows that contracting the viral infection and, thus, being hospitalized, caused greater problems and difficulties as compared to those who were not hospitalized, impacting global cognitive (and executive) functioning, especially the WM. We believe that these results could allow an early detection of alterations in cognitive and executive functioning, a fundamental aspect of the interventions that occur in evolutionary phases such as those related to pre-adolescence, allowing, therefore, the activation of functional recovery pathways in a short time.

Cognitive Difficulties, Psychological Symptoms, and Long Lasting Somatic Complaints in Adolescents with Previous SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Telehealth Cross-Sectional Pilot Study

“…Only two studies have explored the cognitive abilities of children and adolescents recovered from SARS-CoV-2, and they display a large variability in the methodological design, sample involved, and tools used. Frolli et al found a low cognitive and executive function performance, especially in the symptomatic adolescents, mainly those who required hospitalization [ 28 ]. In a small case-series cohort study on subjects ( n = 9) ranging from 4 to 21 years, Morrow et al demonstrated normal working memory, executive functions, verbal ability, and visual reasoning, while difficulties in sustained auditory and attention tasks and anxiety and/or mood concerns emerged (which were pre-existing to the virus in most of the patients) [ 27 ].…”

“…Regarding the children and adolescents who contracted the viral infection, the data concerning the cognitive functioning and mental health are limited [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. To the best of our knowledge, only two studies have evaluated cognitive problems in children and adolescents recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection, and they did not explore the association with physical long-COVID complaints or psychological symptoms or included patients with a large age range [ 27 , 28 ]. No studies analyzed the possible association between cognitive and psychological problems with self-reported long-COVID complaints among adolescents.…”

Impacto de la pandemia en el aprendizaje: reflexiones desde la psicología educativa

“…Por su parte, Frolli et al (2021) aplicaron a sujetos entre doce y trece años tanto la Escala de Inteligencia Wechsler para Niños-IV como la Batería BVN 12-18 de funciones ejecutivas. Encontraron que entre sujetos que no contrajeron la infección viral y los que la contrajeron de forma asintomática no existen diferencias significativas en el funcionamiento cognitivo, pero sí en funciones ejecutivas, las cuales fueron superiores en los asintomáticos.…”

The Psychological Impact of COVID-19 Admission on Families: Results from a Nationwide Sample in Greece

“…Many factors exacerbate their mental wellbeing, including quarantine, infection fear, frustration, and financial loss [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Many studies reported that teenagers were particularly affected, as quarantine caused a sudden interruption of all their social activities [ 6 , 7 , 14 , 15 ]. During lockdowns, they engaged in less physical activity, experienced irregular sleeping patterns, and followed unhealthy eating habits.…”