The immunogenetics of COVID-19

Abstract

The worldwide coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic was sparked by the severe acute respiratory syndrome caused by coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that first surfaced in December 2019 (COVID-19). The effects of COVID-19 differ substantially not just between patients individually but also between populations with different ancestries. In humans, the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system coordinates immune regulation. Since HLA molecules are a major component of antigen-presenting pathway, they play an important role in determining susceptibility to infectious disease. It is likely that differential susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection and/or disease course in COVID-19 in different individuals could be influenced by the variations in the HLA genes which are associated with various immune responses to SARS-CoV-2. A growing number of studies have identified a connection between HLA variation and diverse COVID-19 outcomes. Here, we review research investigating the impact of HLA on individual responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection and/or progression, also discussing the significance of MHC-related immunological patterns and its use in vaccine design.

A Hybrid Framework of Blockchain and IoT Technology in the Pharmaceutical Industry: A Comprehensive Study

“…Te pharmaceutical industry plays a critical role in having a solid healthcare system; good healthcare is vital to every country and economy. Regardless of this fact, there are main issues with drug safety and security because of falsifed and substandard medical products, which pose a great threat and harm to consumers' health [20]. Te pharmaceutical supply chain (PSC) involves numerous partners and intermediaries from manufacturing to consumption, which cannot ascertain transparency in today's centralized systems.…”

Nervous system‐related tropism of SARS‐CoV‐2 and autoimmunity in COVID‐19 infection

“…In one specific study, the HLA‐B*07:02 allele was associated with an elevated risk of high severity score of COVID‐19, whereas the HLA‐C*15:02 allele was associated with risk reduction [78]. Depending on the genetic background and SARS‐CoV‐2 variants, there are indications that the HLA haplotype influences differ [77]. So far, there is no knowledge of the potential influence of HLA haplotypes on neurological manifestations after infection with SARS‐CoV‐2 in COVID‐19.…”

“…There is evidence that HLA haplotypes affect susceptibility to COVID‐19 [77]. Severe COVID‐19 cases are associated with certain HLA haplotypes [78].…”

HLA‐DPB1*13:01 associates with enhanced, and KIR2DS4*001 with diminished protection from developing severe COVID‐19

“…[1][2][3] Diversity of COVID-19 outcome is caused by differential immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection, driven in part by polymorphism of immune-response genes. 4,5 Class I and II HLA guide immune responses by presenting peptide fragments to CD8 + T and CD4 + T cells, enabling infected cells to be killed and antibodies to be produced. Additionally, some HLA allotypes can interact specifically with killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) expressed by natural killer (NK) cells and some T cells.…”

“…15,19 Focused analyses have identified that the distinct HLA variants associating with COVID-19 severity differ across populations. 4 Although the first genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of COVID-19 did not identify HLA variability in disease susceptibility, [31][32][33] a recent study in the UK showed, through imputation of HLA genotypes, that HLA-DRB1*04:01 protects against developing severe disease. 34 On the other hand, KIR have remained largely intractable to GWAS studies.…”