The Human Breast as a Scent Organ: Exocrine structures, Secretions, Volatile Components, and Possible Functions in Breastfeeding Interactions

Schaal, Benoı̂st; Doucet, Sébastien; Soussignan, Robert; Rietdorf, Matthias; Weibchen, Gunnar; Francke, Wittko

doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73945-8_31

Cited by 10 publications

(9 citation statements)

References 26 publications

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“…Anthropoid primates produce a diversity of odorous substances (including scent-gland secretions, urine, and axillary sweat) [12,52,54], the functional significance of which remains obscure and underappreciated. Nonetheless, human semiochemicals have been implicated in mother-infant recognition [75], recognition of familiar kin or non-kin [76], and possibly quality/compatibility-based mate choice [68,77,78]. We suggest that an olfactory mechanism could also function in various species to explain the scarcity of mating between unfamiliar kin (e.g.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Decoding an olfactory mechanism of kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance in a primate

2009

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BackgroundLike other vertebrates, primates recognize their relatives, primarily to minimize inbreeding, but also to facilitate nepotism. Although associative, social learning is typically credited for discrimination of familiar kin, discrimination of unfamiliar kin remains unexplained. As sex-biased dispersal in long-lived species cannot consistently prevent encounters between unfamiliar kin, inbreeding remains a threat and mechanisms to avoid it beg explanation. Using a molecular approach that combined analyses of biochemical and microsatellite markers in 17 female and 19 male ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), we describe odor-gene covariance to establish the feasibility of olfactory-mediated kin recognition.ResultsDespite derivation from different genital glands, labial and scrotal secretions shared about 170 of their respective 338 and 203 semiochemicals. In addition, these semiochemicals encoded information about genetic relatedness within and between the sexes. Although the sexes showed opposite seasonal patterns in signal complexity, the odor profiles of related individuals (whether same-sex or mixed-sex dyads) converged most strongly in the competitive breeding season. Thus, a strong, mutual olfactory signal of genetic relatedness appeared specifically when such information would be crucial for preventing inbreeding. That weaker signals of genetic relatedness might exist year round could provide a mechanism to explain nepotism between unfamiliar kin.ConclusionWe suggest that signal convergence between the sexes may reflect strong selective pressures on kin recognition, whereas signal convergence within the sexes may arise as its by-product or function independently to prevent competition between unfamiliar relatives. The link between an individual's genome and its olfactory signals could be mediated by biosynthetic pathways producing polymorphic semiochemicals or by carrier proteins modifying the individual bouquet of olfactory cues. In conclusion, we unveil a possible olfactory mechanism of kin recognition that has specific relevance to understanding inbreeding avoidance and nepotistic behavior observed in free-ranging primates, and broader relevance to understanding the mechanisms of vertebrate olfactory communication.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Decoding an olfactory mechanism of kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance in a primate

2009

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“…Such refined approaches in mammalian newborns revealed for example that the affective impact of global milk odor can depend on the physiological state of the newborn (Soussignan et al, 1999) or on previous experience (Soussignan et al, 1997). Further, although it is strongly attractive as a whole, milk can be the vehicle for odorant compounds of varying origins and bearing variable informational properties to newborns (e.g., Schaal, 2005;Schaal et al, 2007b).…”

Section: Conclusion and Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The “smellscape” of mother's breast: Effects of odor masking and selective unmasking on neonatal arousal, oral, and visual responses

Doucet

Soussignan

Sagot

et al. 2007

Developmental Psychobiology

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Lactating women emit odor cues that release activity in newborns. Such cues may be carried in various substrates, including milk or areolar secretions. The present study aimed to examine the responses of infants facing their mother's breast and to sort out the source(s) of active volatile compounds emitted by the lactating breast. Infants (aged 3-4 days) were presented their mother's breast in two consecutive trials of 90 s each: a scentless condition (breast entirely covered with a transparent film) paired with one of four odorous conditions (fully exposed breast: n ¼ 15; nipple only exposed: 15; areola only exposed: 13; and milk exposed: 12). The infants were more orally activated when facing any of the odorous breast conditions than when facing the scentless breast. They cried earlier and longer, and opened their eyes less, when facing the scentless breast. Nipple, Areola, and Milk odors appeared to be equivalent to the whole breast odor in stimulating oral activity and in delaying crying onset. This study shows that volatile compounds originating in areolar secretions or milk release mouthing, stimulate eye opening, and delay and reduce crying in newborns.

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“…knowledge on neonatal responses to the odours of colostrum and milk alone, disregarding other potential maternal and mammary sources of olfactory information (otherwise reviewed in [1][2][3]), unless such stimuli have been directly compared with milk.…”

Section: Accepted Manuscriptmentioning

confidence: 99%

The odour of human milk: Its chemical variability and detection by newborns

Loos

Reger

Schaal

2019

Physiology & Behavior

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Human milk odour has for long elicited research interest with regard to its function in breastfeeding initiation. The present review aims to provide an overview of the behavioural effects of human milk odour in the human neonate, considering different types of response measures in a feeding or nonfeeding context. Further, an overview of the current knowledge of odorant composition and factors influencing milk odour is provided by summarizing results from analytical studies using olfactometry, and addressing changes in milk odour due to storage, lactational stage, and maternal dietary intake of odorous substances. We finally highlight some issues for future research.

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The Human Breast as a Scent Organ: Exocrine structures, Secretions, Volatile Components, and Possible Functions in Breastfeeding Interactions

Cited by 10 publications

References 26 publications

Decoding an olfactory mechanism of kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance in a primate

Decoding an olfactory mechanism of kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance in a primate

The “smellscape” of mother's breast: Effects of odor masking and selective unmasking on neonatal arousal, oral, and visual responses

The odour of human milk: Its chemical variability and detection by newborns

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