The Hornworm Parasite, Apanteles Congregatus Say and the Hyperparasite, Hypopteromalus Tabacum (Fitch)1

The parasitic wasp Cotesia congregata uses multiple mechanisms to control host (Manduca sexta) behaviour

“…During this period, the caterpillar continues to feed and behave normally (Adamo et al, 1997;Miles and Booker, 2000). At the end of wasp larval development, the wasp larvae make a final moult to their 3rd instar as they emerge through the host's cuticle (Fulton, 1940). Prior to this developmental stage, the wasps are ignored by the caterpillar's immune system (Lavine and Beckage, 1996), but an immune response becomes activated during wasp emergence (Adamo, 2005).…”

“…Wasps unable to exit the host are encapsulated by the host's immune cells (Adamo et al, 1997). Once outside the host, the wasp larvae spin cocoons and remain tethered to the host by a strand of silk (Fulton, 1940). The wasp larvae then pupate, and emerge as adult wasps 4-5 days later (Beckage and Templeton, 1986).…”

The mechanism of the emergence of Cotesia kariyai (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) larvae from the host

“…Mature larvae of C. congregata also make holes in the integument of M. sexta before emerging from the host (Fulton, 1940;Beckage, 1997). However, despite the fact that they do not feed, the host larvae are able to remain alive for many days after the emergence of the parasitoid larvae.…”

“…data). Fulton (1940) reported that the exuvium of the 2 nd instar larvae of C. congregata effectively prevents the flow of blood from the host. Furthermore, in the C. kariyai -P. separata association the exuvium of 2 nd instar parasitoid larvae is clearly used to plug the perforation holes in combination with a glycoprotein.…”

“…The mature parasitoid larvae usually make individual holes on the ventral surface of the host from which they crawl out (Eastham, 1929;Godfray, 1994). During this process, little or no host haemolymph leaks from the host wound after parasitoid emergence as the exuvium of 2 nd instar larvae is left on the host surface as a plug (Fulton, 1940). Manduca sexta Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) larvae parasitised by Cotesia congregata Say (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) do not die immediately after the parasitoid larvae emerge but remain alive and carry the parasitoid cocoons on their dorsum until adult parasitoid eclosion (Beckage, 1997).…”