The history of olive cultivation in the southern Levant

Abstract

The olive tree (Olea europaea L. subsp. europaea var. europaea) is one of the most important crops across the Mediterranean, particularly the southern Levant. Its regional economic importance dates at least to the Early Bronze Age (~3600 BCE) and its cultivation contributed significantly to the culture and heritage of ancient civilizations in the region. In the southern Levant, pollen, pits and wood remains of wild olives (O. europaea subsp. europaea var. sylvestris) has been found in Middle Pleistocene sediments dating to approximately 780 kya, and are present in numerous palynological sequences throughout the Pleistocene and into the Holocene. Archeological evidence indicates the olive oil production from at least the Pottery Neolithic to Chalcolithic transition (~7600-7000 BP), and clear evidence for cultivation by, 7000 BP. It is hypothesized that olive cultivation began through the selection of local genotypes of the wild var. sylvestris. Local populations of naturally growing trees today have thus been considered wild relatives of the olive. However, millennia of cultivation raises questions about whether genuine populations of var. sylvestris remain in the region. Ancient olive landraces might thus represent an ancient genetic stock closer to the ancestor gene pool. This review summarizes the evidence supporting the theory that olives were first cultivated in the southern Levant and reviews our genetic work characterizing local ancient cultivars. The significance and importance of old cultivars and wild populations are discussed, given the immediate need to adapt agricultural practices and crops to environmental degradation and global climate change.

Revealing the Diversity and Complex Relationships of Croatian Olive Germplasm

“…Complex relationships between olive cultivars and various cases of synonymy revealed by molecular markers have been previously described in numerous studies at the regional [ 16 , 19 , 23 , 45 , 54 ], national [ 13 , 15 , 17 , 18 , 20 , 22 , 47 , 55 , 56 , 57 ], and international levels [ 12 , 23 , 58 ].…”

“…This ambiguity of names is a major problem in the management and conservation of germplasms, nursery production, breeding, and PDO labelling, and it has a negative impact on olive growing in general. A reliable and accurate identification of plant germplasm is a crucial and never-ending work that is necessary for a better knowledge of national and local olive genetic resources [ 15 , 17 , 19 , 24 , 54 , 62 ]. Great efforts are also being made in order to gain as much knowledge as possible of genetic resources for other fruit species such as apple ( Malus domestica Borkh .…”

“…We believe that further genetic studies should also include wild or/and feral olives, which are probably still to be found in limited areas such as the Island of Pag in northern Dalmatia [ 60 ]. This completely unknown material is not only a valuable genetic resource of the species [ 18 , 54 , 64 , 72 , 73 , 74 ], but could provide valuable information on the genetic structure and origin of olive cultivars in Croatia.…”

Genetic Diversity of Common Olive (Olea europaea L.) Cultivars from Nikita Botanical Gardens Collection Revealed Using RAD-Seq Method

“…Common olive (Olea europaea L.) is one of the oldest cultivated plants, the history of domestication of which began in the east of the Mediterranean approximately five to seven thousand years ago [1][2][3]. Early domesticated forms probably spread during human migration from east to west and introgressed with local wild olives, which, in turn, gave rise to local cultivated forms as a result of selection [4][5][6].…”

Enhancing the Biological Control of Mite Species Infesting Olive Trees through Application of Predatory Mite Agistemus exsertus Gonzalez (Acari: Stigmaeidae) and Eco‐Friendly Natural Compounds

“…Olive ( Olea europaea L.) is an economically important subtropical tree cultivated in arid, dry and temperate regions worldwide (Al‐Azzazy and Alhewairini, 2020; Barazani et al ., 2023). Olive orchards in Al‐Jouf of Saudi Arabia contain more than 13 million olive trees which currently face serious mites infestation, resulting in severe damage and significant reductions in crop yield (Hemida et al ., 2014; Al‐Azzazy and Alhewairini, 2020).…”