The History of Anthrax Weaponization in the Soviet Union

Nikolakakis, Ioannis; Michaleas, Spyros N; Panayiotakopoulos, George; Papaioannou, Theodore G.; Karamanou, Marianna

doi:10.7759/cureus.36800

Cited by 5 publications

(3 citation statements)

References 21 publications

(40 reference statements)

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“…Animal cemeteries, burial grounds, biothermal vents, and other locations where deceased animals are disposed of may be sources of anthrax spore infection [84]. The term "stationary anthrax-affected areas" is used in Russia and some former Soviet republics to describe inhabited areas where epizootic anthrax spores can be found, such as farms, meadows, or natural areas [94].…”

Section: Transmissionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Anthrax disease burden: Impact on animal and human health

Khairullah,

Kurniawan,

Effendi

et al. 2024

Int J One Health

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Anthrax is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by Bacillus anthracis. According to current knowledge, the disease originates in sub-Saharan Africa, especially Egypt and Mesopotamia. Laboratory tests involving direct staining or culture of samples taken from malignant pustules, sputum, blood, or patient discharge must be performed to establish a diagnosis. B. anthracis infection can enter the body through the skin, mouth, or nose. Human infection is usually caused by contact with infected animals or animal products. Anthrax causes a reduction in resource efficiency and decreases livestock productivity. B. anthracis spores are resistant to extreme temperatures, pressure, pH, drying, solvents, and ultraviolet light. The biological weapon of this disease may be fatal if it is designed to spread B. anthracis spores by aerosols. In the past, the treatment of human anthrax with penicillin at a high dose was the preferred method. The public can take several measures to prevent anthrax infection, such as purchasing and consuming meat that has been legally certified to have been slaughtered in a slaughterhouse, consuming healthy and properly cooked animal meat, and washing hands with antiseptic soap after handling, processing, and cooking animal products. This review aimed to describe the etiology, pathogenesis, mechanism of infection, epidemiology, diagnosis, clinical symptoms, transmission, risk factors, public health importance, economic impact, potential as a bio-warfare agent, treatment, and control of anthrax. Keywords: animal health, anthrax, human health, infectious disease.

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Section: Transmissionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Anthrax disease burden: Impact on animal and human health

Khairullah,

Kurniawan,

Effendi

et al. 2024

Int J One Health

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“…Robert Koch (1843-1910) discovered the bacterium in 1875. Its use as a biological warfare agent began during World War I, and post-war, it was extensively developed in the Soviet Union [14].…”

Section: Anthrax Before Wwimentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Notably, this included the Soviet Union, which found itself encircled by nations that were antagonistic toward its communist ideology [18]. This marked a pivotal moment in military history: for the first time, the application of scientific advancements enabled the creation of formidable biological weapons against which there was minimal or virtually no effective defense [14].…”

Section: The Moral Constraints Of Waging Biowarfare and The End Of Ww Imentioning

confidence: 99%

Instances of Biowarfare in World War I (1914–1918)

Nikolakakis,

Michaleas,

Panayiotakopoulos

et al. 2024

Cureus

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During World War I (WWI), also referred to as 'The Great War,' Germany implemented a pioneering biowarfare program as part of a broader military strategy to undermine Allied forces by targeting their logistical and supply capabilities. This initiative, unprecedented in its systematic and strategic application, utilized a variety of pathogens, primarily targeting animal populations, to disrupt support systems without contravening international laws, specifically the 1907 Hague Convention. The operations, shrouded in secrecy and largely led by the German General Staff, included sophisticated sabotage actions against both enemy and neutral states. The allegations and usage of bioweapons increased the interest of the Great Powers in further developing their own biowarfare program.

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Application of the Modified Grunow-Finke Risk Assessment Tool to the Sverdlovsk Anthrax Outbreak of 1979

Zhang,

MacIntyre,

Chen

et al. 2024

Military Medicine

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Introduction The modified Grunow-Finke tool (mGFT) is an improved scoring system for distinguishing unnatural outbreaks from natural ones. The 1979 Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak was due to the inhalation of anthrax spores from a military laboratory, confirmed by Russian President Boris Yeltsin in 1992. At the time the Soviet Union insisted that the outbreak was caused by meat contaminated by diseased animals. At the time there was no available risk assessment tool capable of thoroughly examine the origin of the outbreak. Methods This study aimed to retrospectively apply the mGFT to test its ability to correctly identify the origin of the Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979 as unnatural, using data available up to 1992, before the disclosure of a laboratory leak. Data spanning from 1979 to 1992 were collected through literature reviews. Evidence related to each mGFT criterion was scored on a scale of 0 to 3 and independently reviewed by 3 assessors. These scores were then multiplied with a weighting factor and summed to obtain a maximum score. A final score exceeding 30 was indicative of an unnatural origin. Results The mGFT results assigned a total of 47 points to the Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak, suggesting an unnatural origin with a 78% likelihood. Conclusions These findings align with the confirmed unnatural origin of the outbreak, highlighting the value of tools such as the mGFT in identifying unnatural outbreaks. Such tools integrate both intelligence evidence and biological evidence in the identification of unnatural outbreaks. The use of such tools for identifying unnatural outbreaks is limited. Outbreak investigation can be improved if risk assessment tools become integral to routine public health practice and outbreak investigations.

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The History of Anthrax Weaponization in the Soviet Union

Cited by 5 publications

References 21 publications

Anthrax disease burden: Impact on animal and human health

Anthrax disease burden: Impact on animal and human health

Instances of Biowarfare in World War I (1914–1918)

Application of the Modified Grunow-Finke Risk Assessment Tool to the Sverdlovsk Anthrax Outbreak of 1979

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