The Gestational Effects of Maternal Appetite Axis Molecules on Fetal Growth, Metabolism and Long-Term Metabolic Health: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Increased maternal food intake is considered a normal pregnancy adjustment. However, the overavailability of nutrients may lead to dysregulated fetal development and increased adiposity, with long-lasting effects on offspring in later life. Several gut-hormone molecules regulate maternal appetite, with both their orexigenic and anorectic effects being in a state of sensitive equilibrium. The aim of this manuscript is to systematically review literature on the effects of maternal gut-hormone molecules on fetal growth and metabolism, birth weight and the later metabolic health of offspring. Maternal serum ghrelin, leptin, IGF-1 and GLP-1 appear to influence fetal growth; however, a lack of consistent and strong correlations of maternal appetite axis hormones with birth weight and the concomitant correlation with fetal and birth waist circumference may suggest that these molecules primarily mediate fetal energy deposition mechanisms, preparing the fetus for survival after birth. Dysregulated intrauterine environments seem to have detrimental, sex-dependent effects on fetal energy stores, affecting not only fetal growth, fat mass deposition and birth weight, but also future metabolic and endocrine wellbeing of offspring.

The Gestational Effects of Maternal Bone Marker Molecules on Fetal Growth, Metabolism and Long-Term Metabolic Health: A Systematic Review

“…For example, populations of low socioeconomic status residing in developing countries seem to have high Vit-D deficiency rates, as multiple studies report [ 37 , 44 , 86 , 88 ]. Furthermore, maternal hyperphagia or sub-optimal nutrition during gestation can also influence fetal growth and neonatal anthropometric indices, as well as fat deposition in offspring irrespectively of maternal Vit-D status [ 107 ].…”

“…More randomized control trials in large samples are needed to determine the maternal group which will most benefit by Vit-D supplementation in the most effective way—regarding dosing and timing of gestation—in order to diminish the risks of a low birthweight or SGA. Lastly, as previously described, given the sex-specific rates of intrauterine growth, which seem to render male fetuses more vulnerable to maternal insufficiencies than females during gestation [ 107 , 156 ], new studies should also focus on sex-dependent fetal growth effects of maternal bone metabolism, as suggested by some of the studies [ 72 , 73 , 94 , 137 , 141 ].…”

Atualizações sobre a influência da obesidade no surgimento do diabetes gestacional e suas complicações para mãe e para concepto

“…Embora o aumento da ingestão de alimentos seja considerado um ajuste normal durante a gravidez, mais de 40% das mulheres grávidas excedem as diretrizes atuais para ganho de peso ideal durante a gravidez. A disponibilidade em excesso de nutrientes para o feto pode ter efeitos adversos sobre o peso fetal ao nascer, aumentar a adiposidade através da alocação central de deposição de gordura e facilitar a programação metabólica fetal, em última análise, aumentando o risco de obesidade ao longo da vida e síndrome metabólica (Dimas et al, 2022).…”

Evolving Trends in Eating Habits of Children

“…This child will grow as a malnourished adolescent, into adulthood, and later a malnourished pregnant woman, and so the intergenerational cycle of malnutrition continues. Also, maternal nutrition (inadequate and excessive) impacts the uterine environment and fetal development, increasing the infant's risk of obesity and hypertension in later life [6].…”