The Geogenic Contamination Handbook: Addressing arsenic and fluoride in drinking water

Abstract

Reducing exposure to arsenic and fluoride requires sound, cost-effective technological solutions which are disseminated and maintained in socially responsible ways. Without an "enabling environment", good technological systems and approaches cannot flourish. When governance is weak, smaller-scale solutions are often sought. The more cost-effective and culturally appropriate the technology is, the more likely it is to be adopted. Efficiency of removal, simplicity in operation and maintenance, and availability of materials (supply chain) are also essential factors. Society: The social environment plays a critical role, encompassing the culture, education and institutions that play roles in the lives of individuals. It affects attitudes towards perceived health risks and investment in safe water solutions. Cultural normswhich, for example, may prevent women from walking to a communal well-are very important and must be taken into account in the search for safe-water solutions. "Ownership" of a technological solution is critical for its success, as is trust in the technological solution and in the providers. Sustainable approaches incorporate early engagement with community members and usually require longterm support, such as follow-up promotions or technical support in solving problems that lie beyond the capabilities of a local caretaker. References Johnson C.A., Berg M., Sabatini D. (2014) Towards sustainable safe drinking water supply in lowand middle-income countries: The challenges of geogenic contaminants and mitigation measures. Special Issue. Sci. Total Environ., 488-489, 475-476.

Groundwater quality in a semi-arid region of India: Suitability for drinking, agriculture and fluoride exposure risk

“…However, the bioavailability of the F − in food materials is generally influenced by the mineral content of the food, e.g., certain ions can form insoluble complexes limiting the F − bioavailability (Malde et al 2004). Studies suggest that elevated levels of fluoride in drinking water is an important factor that causes dental and skeletal fluorosis in parts of the world including India (Frencken 1992;Jacks et al 2005;Rao et al 2013;Bretzler and Johnson 2015;Choubisa and Choubisa 2016). It is believed that the number of persons affected by fluorosis in Asian and African countries exceeds 70 million (WHO 2006).…”

Groundwater Resources in the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley: An Overview for a Sustainable Development

“…As a consequence, high concentrations of many chemical elements can occur naturally in groundwater due to the local geology and to water interactions with rocks. Several studies [15][16][17][18][19] have shown that water in areas with particular geological features did not meet established drinking water limits for the presence of natural geogenic contaminants without influence from anthropogenic causes.…”

Geostatistical model of the spatial distribution of arsenic in groundwaters in Gujarat State, India

“…Groundwater arsenic contamination (WHO/UNICEF 2018 ; Bhattacharya et al 2017 ; Bretzler and Johnson 2015 ) is the most substantive contributor to preventable detrimental health outcomes arising from chemicals such as F, Mn, Pb, pesticides in drinking water (Smith et al 2000 ). As many as 100,000 preventable deaths may arise each year from exposure to such groundwater arsenic across the globe (Polya et al 2019a , b ; Smith et al 2000 ), particularly in densely populated (van Geen 2008 ) areas in south and south-east Asia (Polya and Charlet 2009 ; Fendorf et al 2010 ), Bangladesh (Argos et al 2010 , Flanagan et al 2012 ), Pakistan (Podgorski et al 2017 ) and India (Chakraborti et al 2004 ).…”