The genetic evidence for human origin of Jivaroan shrunken heads in collections from the Polish museums

Abstract

Advances in forensic identification using molecular genetics are helpful in resolving some historical mysteries. The aim of this study was to confirm the authenticity of shrunken-head artifacts exhibited by two Polish museums. Shrunken heads, known as tsantsas, were headhunting trophies of South American Indians (Jivaroan). A special preparation preserved their hair and facial appearance. However, it was quite common to offer counterfeit shrunken heads of sloths or monkeys to collectors of curiosities. We sampled small skin specimens of four shrunken-head skin from the museum collection from Warsaw and Krakow, Poland. Following genomic DNA isolation, highly polymorphic short tandem repeats were genotyped using a commercial chemistry and DNA sequencing analyzer. Haplogroups of human Y chromosome were identified. We obtained an informative genetic profile of genomic short tandem repeats from all the samples of shrunken heads. Moreover, amplification of amelogenin loci allowed for sex determination. All four studied shrunken heads were of human origin. In two ones, a shared Y-chromosome haplogroup Q characteristic for Indigenous Americans was detected. Another artifact was counterfeited because Y-chromosome haplogroup I2 was found, characteristic for the Southeastern European origin. Commercial genetic methods of identification can be applied successfully in studies on the origin and authenticity of some unusual collection items.

Putative native South Amerindian origin of head lice clade F: evidence from head lice nits infesting human shrunken heads

“…1 ). These are indigenous Amazonian tribes living in the headwaters of the Marañon River and its tributaries, in the mountainous region of northern Peru and eastern Ecuador 36 .…”

The authentication and repatriation of a ceremonial tsantsa to its country of origin (Ecuador)

“…To assist in authenticating the artifact, additional criteria were taken from the literature. The authenticity of tsantsas have previously been confirmed by qualitative assessment [10,12,23], morphometric analysis [24], and genetic testing [15,25,26]. These papers define ceremonial tsantsas as those produced by the SAAWC culture groups using traditional methods, while commercial tsantsas are a broadly defined category of artifacts originating in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and produced for profit as opposed to meaningful cultural purposes.…”

Correlative tomography and authentication features of a shrunken head (tsantsa)

“…These animal skins could mimic human morphological features by being softened in hot water and then moulded over a wooden form [ 19 ]. As commercial collectors desired shrunken human heads for display and not ritual purposes, commercial tsantsas required lifelike human features more than their ceremonial counterparts [ 14 , 18 , 20 – 22 ]. Consequently, real human heads are said to have been documented in commercial production to increase profits from their “realistic features” and were reportedly sourced from unclaimed bodies in local hospitals [ 7 , 19 , 21 ], but this remains a point of contention as the only source of available evidence for this practice is sensationalized news articles [ 4 ].…”

“…Consequently, real human heads are said to have been documented in commercial production to increase profits from their “realistic features” and were reportedly sourced from unclaimed bodies in local hospitals [ 7 , 19 , 21 ], but this remains a point of contention as the only source of available evidence for this practice is sensationalized news articles [ 4 ]. However, ethnohistoric accounts also cite animal skins, particularly sloths, being used in ceremonial contexts [ 3 , 7 , 10 , 11 , 19 , 22 ], occasionally using plugs of human hair as a wig [ 10 ]. This makes investigative efforts difficult, as both origin and material become very complex questions.…”

“…Ceremonial tsantsas are also likely to be prognathic in appearance, with pronounced chins and flared nostrils [ 7 , 23 ]. Most tsantsas’ slightly laterally compressed face and dolichocephalic head are attributed to the face being held in the maker’s palm while the thumb and fingers compressed the temples [ 8 , 21 ].…”