The gender gap in economic dependency over the life cycle: some theoretical and practical considerations

Abstract

Economic analysis usually defines the period of dependency with arbitrary age limits that are independent of country, year, gender and other factors. This paper uses the National Transfer Accounts methodology, which defines dependency by the life cycle periods in which individuals' consumption exceeds their labour income. The novelty of the paper is the decomposition of the results by gender, as well as the retrospective pre-and post-crisis analysis for the 2000-2012 period. Slovenia, an ageing European society with a small, open economy, is used as a showcase. The findings indicate that, in Slovenia in 2012, women were able to finance their consumption through their labour income for 29.0 years, compared to 35.9 years for men, with a significant decrease in the gender gap in economic dependency over time, from 7.9 years in 2000 to 6.9 in 2012. It would seem that the economic crisis interrupted the path to equal periods of economic dependency for both genders. However, overall, the gender gap tends to decrease, despite the economic crisis.

Women as Key Agents in Sustainable Entrepreneurship: A Gender Multigroup Analysis of the SEO-Performance Relationship

“…Although studies indicate that gender differences in entrepreneurship imply that, among other issues, women-led enterprises are often smaller, less performing, and need-motivated [68][69][70][71], there are aspects of women-led enterprises that promote sustainable development [18]. The fact that they are mostly companies in the service sector [68] may imply the development of products and services in accordance with the product-service system [72], which is integrated into the sustainable sufficiency approach [56].…”

“…The fact that they are mostly companies in the service sector [68] may imply the development of products and services in accordance with the product-service system [72], which is integrated into the sustainable sufficiency approach [56]. In addition, since women's motivation in entrepreneurship is often directed towards achievement, valuing social and qualitative aspects over economic ones, working with local networks, and pursuing a balance between non-economic and economic objectives [68,73], their entrepreneurial traits can be seen as an engine for achieving sustainability, rather than as gender obstacles [48,[68][69][70][71].…”

The Impact of Demographic Burden on Insurance Density

“…Overall, the findings of the article provide evidence that dependents are fundamental determinants of insurance density across countries, with dependency ratios measured in respect to the population of males and females aged 65 and above showing almost similar trends, which may be explained by the decreasing gender differences in labor force participation (Istenič et al, 2018).…”

“…Traditionally, women have participated in the labor force less continuously than men, which results into decreased productivity and lower wages (Becker, 1985;Blau & Kahn, 1997Mincer & Polachek, 1974). However, the gender pay disparities have become less striking over time (Istenič et al, 2018), which can be partially explained by less frequent employment discrimination in the workplace (Mandel & Semyonov, 2014) as well as more similar fields of studies and occupations chosen by men and women (England, 2010). Realizing that gender equality boosts economic potential and thus insurance demand (Luciano & Rossi, 2014), insurers could assist in minimizing gender differences by further adjusting their gender-responsive schemes and elaborating on tailored inclusive solutions.…”

Socioeconomic aspects of long-term unemployment in the context of the ageing population of Europe: the case of Poland

“…Reduced fertility rates and the rising proportion of people aged 65 or over are among the key factors under consideration, which can result in a reduced labour supply. Moreover, population ageing can cause an excessive demographic burden and may affect the sustainability of the public sector (Isteni c et al, 2018). Due to economic dependency, this situation may pose challenges for the social security system (Fuchs et al, 2018).…”