The Fate of India Ink Injected Intracardially Into the Oyster, Ostrea Virginica Gmelin

Stauber, Leslie A.

doi:10.2307/1538670

Cited by 102 publications

(28 citation statements)

References 18 publications

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“…The rapid reduction in the number of culturable bacteria in oyster tissues mirrors the results of others and confirms previous investigations examining depuration of fecal pollutants, such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Shigella spp., as well as Vibrio spp., such as Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio vulnificus (35,46). Previous studies have suggested that a vast majority of injected bacteria or particles are engulfed by circulating hemocytes and are removed by externalization across epithelia, possibly without being degraded (52,57). However, Hartland and Timoney (30) observed that bacterial numbers in the seawater surrounding C. virginica and M. mercenaria inoculated with bacteria were lower than expected if the majority of the inoculated bacteria were being transported across epithelial borders by phagocytes into the surrounding seawater, suggesting intracellular and/or extracellular degradation.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Pioneering work by Stauber (52) revealed that India ink particles injected intracardially into oysters are phagocytosed and removed from the tissues as the phagocytic cells migrate across epithelial layers to the exterior. Subsequently Tripp (57) showed that yeast cells and bacterial spores are eliminated from the tissues of C. virginica in much the same manner as India ink particles.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Effects of Hypercapnic Hypoxia on Inactivation and Elimination of Vibrio campbellii in the Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica

Macey

Achilihu

Burnett

et al. 2008

Appl Environ Microbiol

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The Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, inhabits shallow coastal waters that frequently experience periods of low dissolved oxygen (hypoxia) and elevated CO 2 (hypercapnia) levels. Bacteria are extremely abundant in these environments and accumulate in large numbers in filter-feeding oysters, which can act as passive carriers of human pathogens. Although hypercapnic hypoxia (HH) can affect certain specific immune mechanisms, its direct effect on the inactivation, degradation and elimination of bacteria in oysters is unknown. This research was conducted to determine whether exposure to HH reduces the ability of C. virginica to inactivate and eliminate Vibrio campbellii following its injection into the adductor muscle. Oysters were held in fully airsaturated (normoxic; partial O 2 pressure [P O2 ] ‫؍‬ 20.7 kPa, CO 2 < 0.06 kPa, pH 7.8 to 8.0) or HH (P O2 ‫؍‬ 4 kPa, CO 2 ‫؍‬ 1.8 kPa, pH 6.5 to 6.8) seawater at 25°C for 4 h before being injected in the adductor muscle with 10 5 live Vibrio campbellii bacteria and remained under these conditions for the remainder of the experiment (up to 24 h postinjection). Real-time PCR was used to quantify the number of intact V. campbellii bacteria, while selective plating was used to quantify the number of injected bacteria remaining culturable in whole-oyster tissues, seawater, and feces/pseudofeces at 0, 1, 4, and 24 h postinjection. We found that oysters maintained under normoxic conditions were very efficient at inactivating and degrading large numbers of injected bacteria within their tissues. Moreover, a small percentage (ϳ10%) of injected bacteria were passed into the surrounding seawater, while less than 1% were recovered in the feces/pseudofeces. In contrast, HH increased the percentage of culturable bacteria recovered from the tissues of oysters, suggesting an overall decrease in bacteriostasis. We suggest that poor water quality may increase the risk that oysters will harbor and transmit bacterial pathogens hazardous to human and ecosystem health.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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confidence: 99%

Effects of Hypercapnic Hypoxia on Inactivation and Elimination of Vibrio campbellii in the Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica

Macey

Achilihu

Burnett

et al. 2008

Appl Environ Microbiol

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“…Viruses and bacteria are commonly found on the mucosal surfaces and in the extrapallial fluid of bivalves. Hemocytes routinely traffic between the hemolymph and the outer surfaces of oysters (49). They also find their way into the extrapallial fluid between the oyster's body and shell, where they retain full immunological activity (1).…”

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Hemocytes Are Sites of Enteric Virus Persistence within Oysters

Provost

Dancho

Ozbay

et al. 2011

Appl Environ Microbiol

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The goal of this study was to determine how enteric viruses persist within shellfish tissues. Several lines of novel evidence show that phagocytic blood cells (hemocytes) of Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) play an important role in the retention of virus particles. Our results demonstrated an association of virus contamination with hemocytes but not with hemolymph. Live oysters contaminated overnight with hepatitis A virus (HAV) and murine norovirus (MNV) had 56% and 80% of extractable virus associated with hemocytes, respectively. Transfer of HAV-contaminated hemocytes to naïve (virus-free) oysters resulted in naïve oyster meat testing HAV positive for up to 3 weeks. Acid tolerance of HAV, MNV, poliovirus (PV), and feline calicivirus (FCV) correlated with the ability of each virus to persist within oysters. Using reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) to evaluate persistence of these viruses in oysters, we showed that HAV persisted the longest (>21 days) and was most acid resistant, MNV and PV were less tolerant of acidic pH, persisting for up to 12 days and 1 day, respectively, and FCV did not persist (<1 day) within oysters and was not acid tolerant. This suggests that the ability of a virus to tolerate the acidic conditions typical of phagolysosomal vesicles within hemocytes plays a role in determining virus persistence in shellfish. Evaluating oyster and hemocyte homogenates and live contaminated oysters as a prelude to developing improved viral RNA extraction methods, we found that viruses were extracted more expediently from hemocytes than from whole shellfish tissues and gave similar RT-PCR detection sensitivities.

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“…Absence of granulations but presence of hemocytic aggregations in the sample of flat oysters from spring 1992 may indicate that the observed material in the present samples had been removed by motile hemocytes. Such removal of both biotic and abiotic materials are known to be conducted by bivalve hemocytes (Stauber 1950, Tripp 1960, Feng 1965. If fertilization of the poll continues, further investigations, as well as experimental work, are necessary in order to elucidate the observed phenomenon.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A health survey of selected stocks of commercially exploited Norwegian bivalve moluscs

Mortensen¹

1993

Dis. Aquat. Org.

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This paper describes the first systematic health survey of commercially exploited bivalve molluscs in Norway. The main aim of the work was to screen selected stocks of the native flat oyster Ostrea edulis and the introduced Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum for the presence of pathogenic agents. Samples were also collected from the indigenous clam Ruditapes decussatus and the scallop Pecten maximus, as well as from the introduced Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. The indigenous and cultured blue mussel Mytilus edulis and the Iceland scallop Chlamys islandica were not included. No abnormal mortal~t~es were registered, nor were any serious pathogenic agents detected. Some tissue anomalies and some commensals or parasites were reported. These included thigmotrich ciliates on gills and in digestive diverticula, and intracytoplasmic Rickettsiales-like inclusions in epithelia of digestive gland diverticula of oysters, and a cyclopoid Modiolicola like copepod on scallop gills. Polymorphic, presumably inorganic, granulations were observed in connective tissues of oysters. Mature gonads were observed in the Manila clams. Based on the results, some advice on monitoring and management of the stocks is offered.

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The Fate of India Ink Injected Intracardially Into the Oyster, Ostrea Virginica Gmelin

Cited by 102 publications

References 18 publications

Effects of Hypercapnic Hypoxia on Inactivation and Elimination of Vibrio campbellii in the Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica

Effects of Hypercapnic Hypoxia on Inactivation and Elimination of Vibrio campbellii in the Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica

Hemocytes Are Sites of Enteric Virus Persistence within Oysters

A health survey of selected stocks of commercially exploited Norwegian bivalve moluscs

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