The factors associated with distress following exposure to smoke from an extended coal mine fire

Abstract

In February 2014, the coalmine adjacent to the Hazelwood Power Station in the Latrobe Valley of Victoria, Australia, caught fire, with residents from the nearby town of Morwell and the wider area exposed to smoke for six weeks. Although there was evidence linking the mine-fire event with psychological distress, no studies have evaluated the degree of distress in relation to the level of smoke exposure. We aimed to investigate the exposure-response relationship between particulate matter 2.5μm or less in diameter (PM2.5) released during the Hazelwood mine fire event and long-term symptoms of posttraumatic distress in the affected community, including the consideration of other key factors. A total of 3,096 Morwell residents, and 960 residents from the largely unexposed comparison community of Sale, were assessed for symptoms of posttraumatic distress 2.5 years after the Hazelwood incident using the Impact of Events Scale-Revised (IES-R). Individual-level PM2.5 exposure was estimated by mapping participants' self-reported location data on modelled PM2.5 concentrations related to the mine fire. Multivariate linear regression was used to evaluate the exposure-response relationship. Both mean and peak exposure to mine fire-related PM2.5 were found to be associated with participant IES-R scores with an interaction effect between age and mean PM2.5 exposure also identified. Each 10 µg/m 3 increase in mean PM2.5 exposure corresponded to a 0.98 increase in IES-R score (95% CI: 0.36 to 1.61), and each 100 µg/m 3 increase in peak PM2.5 exposure corresponded to a 0.36 increase (95% CI: 0.06 to 0.67). An age-effect was observed, with the exposureresponse association found to be stronger for younger adults. The results suggest that increased exposure to PM2.5 emissions from the Hazelwood mine fire event was associated with higher levels of psychological distress associated with the mine fire and the most pronounced effect was on younger adults living in the affected community. Main findings: There is an exposure-response relationship between Pm2.5 released from the Hazelwood mine fire event and long-term psychological distress towards the event. The exposure-response relationship is more pronounced in younger adults than older adults.

Evaluating the impact of Hazelwood mine fire event on students’ educational development with Bayesian interrupted time series hierarchical meta-regression

“…The impact of the mine fire on academic performance may be due to numerous factors, including disruption to day-to-day operations, 22 traumatic symptoms caused by the mine fire, 37 known associations between air pollution and impaired cognitive function, 38,39 adverse physical health effects of exposure to the Hazelwood mine fire-related air pollution (e.g. respiratory symptoms), 40 ongoing distress experienced by students, teachers and parents 22,41,42 and possibly reduced support from family and community. Given academic underachievement can lead to unemployment, disadvantage and ill-health later in life, 43 it is critical that these impacts are recognised and responded to.…”

“…Two schools were relocated causing direct educational interruptions as well as threats to student’s sense of safety and security (Berger et al, 2018). The mine fire also led to ongoing distress experienced by students, teachers and parents in the smoke affected community post the mine fire (Berger et al, 2018; E. Berger, Maybery, et al, 2020; Broder et al, 2020; Maybery et al, 2020). Hazelwood mine fire-related air pollution has also been linked to a range of adverse physical health effects such as respiratory morbidity (Gao et al, 2020; Holt et al, 2021; Johnson et al, 2019; Shao et al, 2020).…”

“…Schools may be forced to close or relocate for periods of time during and after disasters, causing interruptions and sometimes discontinuation in students’ academic programs, recreational activities, and social connections (Gibbs et al, 2019; Jaycox et al, 2007; Masten and Motti-Stefanidi, 2020; Peek and Richardson, 2010). Other physical, economic and social impacts, such as damage to property, loss of job opportunities, reduced incomes, increased distress levels and illness reported impacting adults (Xu et al, 2020; Broder et al, 2020; Norris et al, 2002; North and Pfefferbaum, 2013) can be potentially magnified in children and adolescents. However, the psychological and academic needs of children and adolescents have often been overlooked after disasters (McFarlane et al, 1987; Silverman and La Greca, 2002).…”

“…In February 2014, a bushfire ignited the Morwell coal mine adjacent to the Hazelwood Power Station in the Latrobe Valley, Victoria, Australia and burned for approximately six weeks. Whilst the flames themselves did not directly threaten homes or lives, heavy smoke concentrations throughout the six-week period resulted in increased mortality, physical ill-health and psychological distress in the local community (Broder et al, 2020; Dimitriadis et al, 2021; Gao et al, 2020; Holt et al, 2021. ; Ikin et al, 2020; Johnson et al, 2019).…”

The vulnerability and resilience of older people in rural/regional areas in times of climate, environmental and global health challenges

“…While there is evidence that older people may be more likely to have health impacts as a result of disasters, there is a growing body of literature suggesting the reverse may be the case for psychological impacts. A recent finding from the Hazelwood Health Study, which is looking at the impacts of an extended pollution event on the health of residents in a Victorian regional community, found that older people were less likely to report distress associated with exposure to the event compared with younger people 7 . This finding is in line with other disaster research, which suggests that older people may be more psychologically resilient, possibly because of having responded to and learned from previous traumatic events across their longer lifespans.…”