The experimental analysis of appetite.

Abstract

The present paper is a critical review of contemporary research upon appetite. 2 My aim is to review the work of others and relate my own to it, to propose a reformulation of the field in terms of partial hungers, and to make several suggestions for future research. APPETITE IN RELATION TO BODILY NEED AS REVEALED BY THE SELF-SELECTION METHOD OF FEEDINGBodily Need and Survival A bodily need is here denned operationally in terms of deprivation and survival of the individual. If a rat or man is deprived of oxygen, he can survive a few minutes. If deprived of water, in the presence of all other nutritive substances, he can survive a few days.Richter and collaborators (56) determined the survival time of rats maintained upon air and water plus one other nutritive element. With separate groups of animals they tested singly each of five fats, five carbohydrates, and six proteins. In terms of the length of survival the food elements within each group were ranked in an order of their beneficial effect in sustaining life. Among the fats (olive oil, lard, wheat germ oil, cod-liver oil, peanut oil, perilla oil), life was maintained longest upon olive oil. Of the carbohydrates (dextrose, sucrose, starch levulose, lactose, galactose), lactose gave the longest survival. Among the proteins (casein, desiccated blood fibrin, egg albumin, lactalbumin, hemo-

Dietary choice behavior inCaenorhabditis elegans

“…In most cases food preference develops with time, suggesting that worms need to try the food to make a decision. This is similar to observations on rats, which show that animals taste both foods before making a choice, and the preference also exhibits a trend (Young, 1933;Young, 1941). One could argue that the food choices observed in Fig.·1 are the result of the worms' varying degree of chemoattraction to different bacteria.…”

“…selecting food that better supports growth, and try foods before making a choice (Osborne and Mendel, 1918;Young, 1941).…”

A regulatory focus perspective on eating behavior: how prevention and promotion focus relates to emotional, external, and restrained eating

“…Additionally, some individuals have a strong focus on regulating food intake to control body weight ( Van Strien et al, 1986 ). Basically, humans differ regarding both what they eat and how they eat ( Young, 1941 ; Epstein et al, 2007 ) according to three central dimensions of eating behavior: (a) eating after experiencing negative emotions (i.e., emotional eating, also termed emotional food craving; Hill et al, 1991 ; Craeynest et al, 2008 ), (b) eating in response to positive external stimuli such as the smell, taste, and appearance of food (i.e., external eating), and (c) deliberately regulating food intake to control body weight (i.e., restrained eating; Van Strien et al, 1986 ).…”

Hedonic organization and regulation of behavior.

“…It brings up to date the account of findings and hypotheses. Earlier theoretical papers and bulletins are available (Young, 1941(Young, , 1948(Young, , 1949a(Young, , 1952(Young, , 1955(Young, , 1957.…”