“…The cells plated in 3D scaffolds secrete and integrate new components to form ECM trying to shape their environment. Nevertheless, these artificially fabricated dECM scaffolds are less dense and have restricted chemical complexity because their organization is a result of spontaneous, rather than cell-directed polymerization [66]. Fig.…”
Section: Types Of 3d Scaffolds Based On the Source Materialsmentioning
Considering the advantages and disadvantages of biomaterials used for the production of 3D scaffolds for tissue engineering, new strategies for designing advanced functional biomimetic structures have been reviewed. We offer a comprehensive summary of recent trends in development of single- (metal, ceramics and polymers), composite-type and cell-laden scaffolds that in addition to mechanical support, promote simultaneous tissue growth, and deliver different molecules (growth factors, cytokines, bioactive ions, genes, drugs, antibiotics, etc.) or cells with therapeutic or facilitating regeneration effect. The paper briefly focuses on divers 3D bioprinting constructs and the challenges they face. Based on their application in hard and soft tissue engineering, in vitro and in vivo effects triggered by the structural and biological functionalized biomaterials are underlined. The authors discuss the future outlook for the development of bioactive scaffolds that could pave the way for their successful imposing in clinical therapy.
“…The cells plated in 3D scaffolds secrete and integrate new components to form ECM trying to shape their environment. Nevertheless, these artificially fabricated dECM scaffolds are less dense and have restricted chemical complexity because their organization is a result of spontaneous, rather than cell-directed polymerization [66]. Fig.…”
Section: Types Of 3d Scaffolds Based On the Source Materialsmentioning
Considering the advantages and disadvantages of biomaterials used for the production of 3D scaffolds for tissue engineering, new strategies for designing advanced functional biomimetic structures have been reviewed. We offer a comprehensive summary of recent trends in development of single- (metal, ceramics and polymers), composite-type and cell-laden scaffolds that in addition to mechanical support, promote simultaneous tissue growth, and deliver different molecules (growth factors, cytokines, bioactive ions, genes, drugs, antibiotics, etc.) or cells with therapeutic or facilitating regeneration effect. The paper briefly focuses on divers 3D bioprinting constructs and the challenges they face. Based on their application in hard and soft tissue engineering, in vitro and in vivo effects triggered by the structural and biological functionalized biomaterials are underlined. The authors discuss the future outlook for the development of bioactive scaffolds that could pave the way for their successful imposing in clinical therapy.
“…Dimensionality is one of the main concerns nowadays in skin wound healing. Current in vitro analyses are mainly carried out in 2D cultures of homogeneous populations of cell monolayers, by which researchers obtain the majority of their knowledge related to cell behaviour [203]. This has led to many imperfections and artefacts, especially when growing fibroblasts over rigid surfaces, which induced differences in terms of adhesion, migration and cytoskeletal evolution, proliferation, maturation and cell signalling compared to a more biomimetic 3D environment [204][205][206][207][208][209].…”
Skin wound healing aims to repair and restore tissue through a multistage process that involves different cells and signalling molecules that regulate the cellular response and the dynamic remodelling of the extracellular matrix. Nowadays, several therapies that combine biomolecule signals (growth factors and cytokines) and cells are being proposed. However, a lack of reliable evidence of their efficacy, together with associated issues such as high costs, a lack of standardization, no scalable processes, and storage and regulatory issues, are hampering their application. In situ tissue regeneration appears to be a feasible strategy that uses the body's own capacity for regeneration by mobilizing host endogenous stem cells or tissue-specific progenitor cells to the wound site to promote repair and regeneration. The aim is to engineer instructive systems to regulate the spatio-temporal delivery of proper signalling based on the biological mechanisms of the different events that occur in the host microenvironment. This review describes the current state of the different signal cues used in wound healing and skin regeneration, and their combination with biomaterial supports to create instructive microenvironments for wound healing.
“…The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex mixture of fibrous proteins and acts as a physical substrate for cell adhesion, structure, and mechanical stimulation. It also provides biochemical cues for tissue homeostasis, angiogenesis, immune response, and tissue repair ( Frantz et al, 2010 ; Rozario and DeSimone, 2010 ; Evangelatov and Pankov, 2013 ; Theocharis et al, 2016 ; Saldin et al, 2017 ). Disruption of ECM homeostasis can lead to fibrotic diseases, such as systemic sclerosis, liver cirrhosis, and cardiovascular disease, and can facilitate tumor malignancy and metastatic progression in cancer ( Cox and Erler, 2011 ).…”
Decellularization techniques support the creation of biocompatible extracellular matrix hydrogels, providing tissue-specific environments for both in vitro cell culture and in vivo tissue regeneration. We obtained endometrium derived from porcine decellularized uteri to create endometrial extracellular matrix (EndoECM) hydrogels. After decellularization and detergent removal, we investigated the physicochemical features of the EndoECM, including gelation kinetics, ultrastructure, and proteomic profile. The matrisome showed conservation of structural and tissue-specific components with low amounts of immunoreactive molecules. EndoECM supported in vitro culture of human endometrial cells in two- and three-dimensional conditions and improved proliferation of endometrial stem cells with respect to collagen and Matrigel. Further, we developed a three-dimensional endometrium-like co-culture system of epithelial and stromal cells from different origins. Endometrial co-cultures remained viable and showed significant remodeling. Finally, EndoECM was injected subcutaneously in immunocompetent mice in a preliminary study to test a possible hypoimmunogenic reaction. Biomimetic endometrial milieus offer new strategies in reproductive techniques and endometrial repair and our findings demonstrate that EndoECM has potential for in vitro endometrial culture and as treatment for endometrial pathologies.
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