The Evolution of Social Complexity in Predynastic Egypt: An Analysis of the Naqada Cemeteries

Abstract

A large territorial state emerged in Egypt by 300 BC, but its origins are not well known. Because what we know about the Predynastic period is mainly from cemeteries, archaeological evidence for the rise of the state in Egypt is lacking. An analysis of the largest Predynastic cemetery at Naqada shows increasingly differentiated graves over time, as well as an increasing interest in elite goods. An interpretation of the cemetery analysis seems to indicate increasing social differentiation and very possibly the emergence of political roles.

Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: A new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature

“…Populations living in the region underwent a number of important changes in subsistence and settlement patterns, from foraging to intensive agriculture, and from small village settlements to large population agglomerations (Butzer, 1976;Brewer et al, 1994;Brewer and Teeter, 1999). Major sociopolitical and economic changes occurred, including the development of distinct social hierarchies (Castillos, 1983;Trigger, 1983;Bard, 1989). Egypt also experienced frequent contact with foreign neighbors due to its situation in the Mediterranean region and near the intersection of three continents.…”

Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state

“…Purported changes in the archaeological sequence associated with the formation of the state were attributed to the population replacement as a result of the arrival of a \Dynastic Race" of invaders (Petrie, 1920(Petrie, , 1939Winkler, 1938Winkler, , 1939Emery, 1961). More recently, Egyptologists have proposed a model for indigenous state formation, whereby three protostates developed and merged through military or other expansion (Trigger, 1983;Hassan, 1988;Bard, 1989Bard, , 1994Kemp, 1989), while others have taken a more Afrocentrist approach (Diop, 1974;Bernal, 1987Bernal, , 1991.…”

Archaeology at the Millennium

“…Environmental circumscription, ideology, and warfare are the most commonly invoked factors in current models for Late Predynastic state formation in the area around Nagada (Bard, 1994) and Hierakonpolis in southern (Upper) Egypt (Friedman and Adams, 1992;Hoffman, 1989Hoffman, , 1991 and its subsequent extension through warfare, alliance, and possibly trade to Lower Egypt (the Nile Delta; Bard, 1994;Wenke, 1991). Some researchers have argued that Carneiro's circumscription model of state origins may be applicable to Egypt (Bard, 1989). Even though there is little evidence for major population pressure in Egypt this early, it is still clear that Upper Egypt is a far more circumscribed environment than Lower Egypt; "this could have generated at least a more intense form of cultural interaction and even competition in Upper Egypt" (Wenke, 1991:301).…”