The evolution of epistemological methodologies in anatomy: From antiquity to modern times

Abstract

Present day scenario regarding epistemological methods in anatomy is in sharp contrast to the situation during ancient period. This study aimed to explore the evolution of epistemological methodologies in anatomy across centuries. In ancient times Egyptian embalmers acquired anatomical knowledge from handling human bodies and likewise anatomical studies in India involved human dissection. Ancient Greeks used theological principles‐based methods, animal dissection and human dissection in practice of anatomy. Human dissection was also practiced in ancient China for gaining anatomical knowledge. Prohibition of human dissection led to use of animal dissection in ancient Rome and the trend continued in Europe through Middle Ages. Epistemological methods used by Muslim scholars during Middle Ages are not clearly chronicled. Human dissection returned as primary epistemological method in Renaissance Europe and empirical methods were reinstated after ancient period in human dissection during 16th century. The situation further improved with introduction of pragmatic experiment based approach during 17th century and autopsy‐based methods during 18th century. Advances in anatomical knowledge continued with advent of microscope‐based methods and emergence of anatomical sections in practice of human dissection in 19th century. Introduction of human observational studies, medical imaging, and molecular methods presented more options in terms of epistemological methods for investigating the human body during 20th century. Onset of 21st century has witnessed dominance of technology‐based methods in anatomy. Limited emphasis on ethics in epistemological methodologies since antiquity is a dark aspect of otherwise an eventful evolutionary journey but recent developments are in positive direction.

“A whole new perspective on how the body fits together”—An evaluation of a cadaver laboratory experience for high school students

“…This presentation serves to situate the students to understand the necessity of a willed body program in light of millennia of ethical transgressions from medical and anatomical educators in search of bodies for dissection (Ghosh, 2015; Comer, 2022; Organ & Comer, 2022). Students learn of the first dissections being performed on executed criminals, to graverobbing and body snatching, followed by the Burke and Hare anatomical scandal, and end with a discussion of the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act and the willed body program at IUSM (Rosner, 2010; Ghosh, 2015, 2022; Brenna, 2022). The goal of this historical framing is to humanize the donors and promote respect for the donor and the whole‐body donation process.…”

“…Students learn of the first dissections being performed on executed criminals, to graverobbing and body snatching, followed by the Burke and Hare anatomical scandal, and end with a discussion of the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act and the willed body program at IUSM (Rosner, 2010;Ghosh, 2015Ghosh, , 2022Brenna, 2022). The goal of this historical framing is to humanize the donors and promote respect for the donor and the whole-body donation process.…”

Evolution of a discipline—The changing face of anatomy

“…Following that important piece from AAA is a series of articles that examine the evolution of the discipline of anatomy through different lenses: historical (Brenna, 2022 ), epistemological (Ghosh, 2022 ), and ethical (Comer, 2022 ). These three articles work together to describe how anatomical knowledge has changed through history and how that knowledge was acquired, and examine how ethics surrounding anatomical study have changed.…”

A chance of neglecting the excess of years of physiological senescence owing to the modern embalming Art

“…The demand for embalming grew in England and particularly in the United States, where it was promoted by a newly emerging group of undertaker-businessmen as superior to the customary but awkward and often unsatisfactory method of preserving bodies for transportation or for viewing by packing them in ice or laying them on "cooling boards," with a concave, ice-filled box fitted over the torso and head. Some of the more enterprising entrepreneurs exhibited wellpreserved "cases" in the windows of shops, or took them on tour so that persons in rural areas and small towns could see the latest development [5].…”