The endangered California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) population is exposed to local haemosporidian parasites

Abstract

The endangered California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) is the largest New World Vulture in North America. Despite recovery program success in saving the species from extinction, condors remain compromised by lead poisoning and limited genetic diversity. The latter makes this species especially vulnerable to infectious diseases. Thus, taking advantage of the program of blood lead testing in Arizona, condor blood samples from 2008 to 2018 were screened for haemosporidian parasites using a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol that targets the parasite mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Plasmodium homopolare (Family Plasmodiidae, Order Haemosporida, Phylum Apicomplexa), was detected in condors captured in 2014 and 2017. This is the first report of a haemosporidian species infecting California Condors, and the first evidence of P. homopolare circulating in the Condor population from Arizona. Although no evidence of pathogenicity of P. homopolare in Condors was found, this study showed that the California Condors from Arizona are exposed to haemosporidian parasites that likely are spilling over from other local bird species. Thus, active surveillance should be an essential part of conservation efforts to mitigate the impact of infectious diseases, an increasingly recognized cause of global wildlife extinctions worldwide, particularly in avian populations considered vulnerable or endangered.

Great-tailed Grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus) as a tolerant host of avian malaria parasites

“…Plasmodium homopolare lineage LAIRI01 ( Fig 3 ) circulating in the grackle population has been reported in California Condor populations from Arizona (H2, MT341242; [ 68 ]). As expected by their genetic distance, lineages PHPAT01 and ZEMAC01 are closely related and form a monophyletic group with lineage QUIMEX01 (or MAP01, KY653785) also reported in a grackle from Arizona [ 61 ], and with Plasmodium lutzi and Plasmodium matutinum ( Fig 3 and S1A Fig ).…”

“…Plasmodium homopolare (LAIRI01, Fig 2 ), on the other hand, has been reported in Masked Bobwhite Quails ( Colinus virginianus ridgwayi , Odontophoridae), Common Ravens ( Corvus corax , Corvidae) [ 75 ], and California Condors ( Gymnogyps californianus , Cathartidae; [ 68 ]) from Arizona, and in grackles from Mexico ( S2 Table [ 59 ]). In addition, the lineage LAIRI01 has been found in 26 bird species from 16 families (Passeriformes and non-Passeriformes), including other Icteridae species from nearby states (California and New Mexico) and across the Americas, with no reports in other continents ( Fig 2 , S3 Table [ 53 , 55 ]).…”

“…All Plasmodium parasite lineages found here infect many residents and migrant species in the New World and are common in other bird species found in Arizona and other areas across the USA. These include lineages of P. cathemerium, P. homopolare, and P. relictum (S3 Table [38,40,68]).…”

Great-tailed Grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus) as a tolerant host of avian malaria parasites

“…All Plasmodium parasite lineages found here infect many residents and migrant species in the New World and are common in other bird species found in Arizona and other areas across the USA. These include lineages of P. cathemerium, P. homopolare , and P. relictum (S2 Table [38,40,68]). Plasmodium cathemerium (SEIUR01) has been detected in at least 33 bird species from 15 families (Passeriformes and non-Passeriformes), including House Sparrows ( Passer domesticus , Passeridae) from Arizona [73], grackles from Mexico (S2 Table [59]) and other Icteridae species from California (Fig 2, S2 Table [53,55]).…”

“…Plasmodium homopolare (LAIRI01, Fig 2), on the other hand, has been reported in Masked Bobwhite Quails ( Colinus virginianus ridgwayi , Odontophoridae), Common Ravens ( Corvus corax , Corvidae) [74], and California Condors ( Gymnogyps californianus , Cathartidae; [68]) from Arizona, and in grackles from Mexico (S2 Table [59]). In addition, the lineage LAIRI01 has been found in 26 bird species from 16 families (Passeriformes and non-Passeriformes), including other Icteridae species from nearby states (California and New Mexico) and across the Americas, with no reports in other continents (Fig 2, S2 Table [53,55]).…”