The emerging role of extracellular vesicles in fungi: a double-edged sword

Abstract

Fungi are eukaryotic microorganisms found in nature, which can invade the human body and cause tissue damage, inflammatory reactions, organ dysfunctions, and diseases. These diseases can severely damage the patient’s body systems and functions, leading to a range of clinical symptoms that can be life-threatening. As the incidence of invasive fungal infections has progressively increased in the recent years, a wealth of evidence has confirmed the “double-edged sword” role of fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs) in intercellular communication and pathogen-host interactions. Fungal EVs act as mediators of cellular communication, affecting fungal-host cell interactions, delivering virulence factors, and promoting infection. Fungal EVs can also have an induced protective effect, affecting fungal growth and stimulating adaptive immune responses. By integrating recent studies, we discuss the role of EVs in fungi, providing strong theoretical support for the early prevention and treatment of invasive fungal infections. Finally, we highlight the feasibility of using fungal EVs as drug carriers and in vaccine development.

Comprehensive Review on the Virulence Factors and Therapeutic Strategies with the Aid of Artificial Intelligence against Mucormycosis

“…The absence of antifungal efficacy in Olorofim, class 2 DHODH inhibitor, against Mucorales species was attributed to the presence of class 1 DHODH in Mucorales, which is significantly different from the class 2 DHODH found in susceptible fungal species, hence making it a novel therapeutic target. Loss of this enzyme was connected to cell wall integrity and increased sensitivity to cell wall-damaging chemicals including amphotericin B by Banerjee et al, and Pinder et al further confirmed that the Mucorales species M. circinelloides and R. arrhizus contain active class 1A DHODH. − …”

The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Atopic Dermatitis

“…However, there is currently no evidence on whether EVs produced by S. aureus in AD promote M1 or M2 macrophages at the site of inflammation. Likewise, evidence for the role of fungus-derived EVs in driving macrophage differentiation in AD is lacking, with studies in other disease settings [ 76 ] highlighting that this could be a potential mechanism in AD. Further research is needed to address these important questions.…”

Importance of Non-Covalent Interactions in Yeast Cell Wall Molecular Organization

“…Recently, there have been increasingly more studies of extracellular vesicles in yeast [9,11,12,[85][86][87]. The phenomenon of vesicular transport from the cell to the environment has been known for a long time, for example, in mammalian cells [88] that do not have a rigid polysaccharide shell similar to yeast cells.…”