The Emergence of Cognitive Maps for Spatial Navigation in 7‐ to 10‐Year‐Old Children

Abstract

Although much is known about adults' ability to orient by means of cognitive maps (mental representations of the environment), it is less clear when this important ability emerges in development. In the present study, 97 seven-to 10-year-olds and 26 adults played a video game designed to investigate the ability to orient using cognitive maps. The game required participants to reach target locations as quickly as possible, necessitating the identification and use of novel shortcuts. Seven-and 8-year-olds were less effective than older children and adults in using shortcuts. These findings provide clear evidence of a distinct developmental change around 9 years of age when children begin to proficiently orient and navigate using cognitive maps.

The Development of Human Navigation in Middle Childhood: A Narrative Review through Methods, Terminology, and Fundamental Stages

“…By the age of 7, children were able to use distal cues, even when cues were rotated, and their competencies were similar to those of adults in small spaces, which represents a milestone in the development of navigational abilities [ 39 , 55 ]. The age of 8 was a stalemate age; however, starting from the age of 9, children’s capabilities grew and expanded to encompass large spaces as well [ 65 ]. In fact, metric information was used more frequently than ever.…”

“…After the age of 5, when children increase their mental rotation ability and the efficiency of allocentric strategies [ 3 ], especially in small and reachable spaces [ 52 ], the next milestone for the development of navigational abilities is represented by the age of 7, considered a transitional age [ 39 , 55 , 58 ]. In fact, at the age of 7, the use of allocentric strategies was more stable and spontaneous, although the main strategies used were the egocentric ones, especially in large spaces, where children showed less flexibility in finding short-cuts [ 65 ]. Regarding navigational abilities in small spaces, some authors found an allocentric competence similar to adults [ 44 ], but with some limitations: for example, children at 7 years of age were capable of using both distal and proximal cues, but when the latter were removed, they tended to be disoriented [ 55 ].…”

“…The age of 9 represents another milestone for the development of navigational abilities, particularly in the exploration and orienting in large spaces [ 65 ]. The spatial abilities were more similar to those of adults and, differently from previous ages, 9-year-old children were capable to find short-cuts, showing an increased flexibility to switch from one strategy to another [ 65 ].…”

“…The age of 9 represents another milestone for the development of navigational abilities, particularly in the exploration and orienting in large spaces [ 65 ]. The spatial abilities were more similar to those of adults and, differently from previous ages, 9-year-old children were capable to find short-cuts, showing an increased flexibility to switch from one strategy to another [ 65 ]. Particularly, when landmarks were removed, children used metric information, the last step for improving navigation abilities, although they still committed a few errors in layout recognition based on metric information [ 13 ].…”

“…Other sensitive changes included the increased mean speed during exploration of a new environment [ 39 , 48 , 59 ], the competence to properly use geometric and metric information, the correct orientation when cues were rotated in every type of space [ 40 , 45 ], and the accuracy in learning a new environment after a single exposition [ 43 ]. It is astonishing how, at the age of 11, children were able to learn a new environment from a paper map or virtual mode of it and transpose the information in the real environment, showing great allocentric competencies, even when cues were rotated (90° or 180°) or erased, even though there was not any active locomotion during the learning phase [ 26 , 65 ]. Speaking about the differences between children 10, 11, and 12 years old and adults, they can be attributable to brain differences; specifically, children seem to have much more frontal activity than adults, even when motor and attention skills were not required, which translated in a diffuse activation of the brain as well as in a cognitive effort.…”