The Effects of Vehicle Automation on Driver Engagement: The Case of Adaptive Cruise Control and Mind Wandering

Abstract

Objective This field study examined the effects of adaptive cruise control (ACC) on mind wandering prevalence. Background ACC relieves the driver of the need to regulate vehicle speed and following distance, which may result in safety benefits. However, if ACC reduces the amount of attentional resources drivers must devote to driving, then drivers who use ACC may experience increased periods of mind wandering, which could reduce safety. Methods Participants drove a prescribed route on a public road twice, once using ACC and once driving manually. Mind wandering rates were assessed throughout the drive using auditory probes, which occurred at random intervals and required the participant to indicate whether or not they were mind wandering. Measures of physiological arousal and driving performance were also recorded. Results No evidence of increased mind wandering was found when drivers used ACC. In fact, female drivers reported reduced rates of mind wandering when driving with ACC relative to manual driving. Driving with ACC also tended to be associated with increased physiological arousal and improved driving behavior. Conclusion Use of ACC did not encourage increased mind wandering or negatively affect driving performance. In fact, the results indicate that ACC may have positive effects on driver safety among drivers who have limited experience with the technology. Application Driver characteristics, such as level of experience with in-vehicle technology and gender, should be considered when investigating driver engagement during ACC use. Field research on vehicle automation may provide valuable insights over and above studies conducted in driving simulators.

A user study of directional tactile and auditory user interfaces for take-over requests in conditionally automated vehicles

“…Stephenson et al also explored older adults' autonomic arousal and found that safety-critical events (such as TORs) may narrow their visual attention and elevate arousal mechanisms (Stephenson et al, 2020). Furthermore, increasing the level of automation does not seem to decrease driving performance; on the contrary, it may even provide a safer drive among drivers with limited experience with the technology (Weaver et al, 2020).…”

This Is Your Brain on Autopilot 2.0: The Influence of Practice on Driver Workload and Engagement During On-Road, Partially Automated Driving

“…Lohani et al (2021) found a similar null effect of automation on physiological arousal, as measured by heart rate and heart rate variability. Furthermore, Weaver et al (2022) periodically probed drivers and found a null effect of automation on self-reported mind wandering, physiological arousal, and driving performance. These results suggest there may be a difference between simulated and real driving, such that the potential for deadly consequences on real roadways forces drivers to remain engaged in a way that is not captured in simulated driving, where poor driving performance is less consequential.…”

“…It is possible that drivers with no prior automation experience (such as those in Lohani et al, 2021, McDonnell et al, 2021b; Weaver et al, 2022) remain engaged due to the novelty of the technology. Evidence suggests that increased familiarity with automation leads to increases in trust and decreases in stress over time (Endsley, 2017b; Gaspar & Carney, 2019).…”