The Effects of Tai Chi on the Executive Functions and Physical Fitness in Middle-Aged Adults with Depression: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Abstract

Objective. The present study examined the effects of Tai Chi exercise on the executive functions (EFs) and physical fitness of middle-aged adults with depression. Methods. A total of 39 middle-aged adults with depression (Mage = 50.59, SD = 7.38) were randomly assigned to the Tai Chi group (n = 20) or the waiting-list control group (n = 19). The Tai Chi group engaged in two 90 min sessions of Tai Chi exercise per week for 12 weeks; the waiting-list control group was asked to maintain their usual daily routines for 12 weeks. Depression symptoms, EFs (i.e., inhibitory control, planning, working memory, and cognitive flexibility), and physical fitness (i.e., cardiovascular fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, power, and flexibility) were evaluated at the baseline (pretest), 6-week (mid-test), and 12-week (post-test) marks. Results. Both groups showed decreased depression symptoms over time. Compared with the control group, the Tai Chi group showed decreased reaction times for incongruent conditions in the Stroop test from pretest to mid- and post-test, and shorter reaction time for incongruent conditions in the Stroop test than the control group at post-test; the Tai Chi group performed significantly better than the control group in overall total move score of Tower of London (TOL). The Tai Chi group also showed increased total correct scores of TOL from pretest to mid- and post-test, and greater total correct scores of TOL than the control group at post-test. Additionally, results indicated that Tai Chi exercise comprehensively improved physical fitness from pretest to mid- and post-test. Greater performance in terms of cardiovascular fitness, muscular strength, and power was also found in the Tai Chi group at post-test than in the control group. Conclusions. These findings suggest that the 12-week Tai Chi exercise improved inhibitory control, planning and working memory aspects of executive functions, and physical fitness in middle-aged adults with depression.

Unveiling the Impact of Metacognition on Academic Achievement in Physical Education and Activity Settings: A Comprehensive Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Qualitative Insights

“…Team sports such as basketball, 12,27,29,66 soccer, 30,67 and volleyball 68 can cultivate participants' tactical thinking, teamwork awareness, and executive functions. Martial arts 50,54,[69][70][71] and gymnastics activities 48 can enhance participants' physical control. Some precision sports like darts-shooting, 34 and golf 49 can develop athletes' metacognitive skills.…”