The effects of stress on reading: A comparison of first-language versus intermediate second-language reading comprehension.

Abstract

This study investigated how resource-demanding reading tasks and stressful conditions affect lstlanguage (LI) and intermediate 2nd-language (L2) reading comprehension. Using the attentional control theory framework (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007), we investigated the roles of central executive working memory (WM) resources, reading task difficulty, trait reading anxiety, and social evaluative stress on LI and L2 readers' comprehension. Eighty-six L2 Spanish readers and 70 LI English readers were tested for comprehension using noninference (fact), bridging inference, and pragmatic inference questions under either no-stress or social-evaluative stress conditions. Stress reduced process ing efficiency (producing longer reaction times) for L2 readers who were high in reading anxiety and increased processing efficiency for LI readers who were high in WM capacity. Stress did not affect reading effectiveness (accuracy). Thus, stress only impaired reading efficiency when task difficulty was high due to high inferential complexity or reading in an L2 and when anxious thoughts competed for limited central executive WM resources. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

The relative roles of visuospatial and linguistic working memory systems in generating inferences during visual narrative comprehension

“…Moreover, working memory resources should be involved in the generation of inferences in sequential narratives. A plethora of studies shows that WM resources (e.g., WM capacity) predict text readers' generation of bridging inferences (Allbritton, 2004;Calvo, 2001Calvo, , 2005Just & Carpenter, 1992;Linderholm & van den Broek, 2002;Rai, Loschky, Harris, Peck, & Cook, 2011, Rai, Loschky & Harris, 2014Reichle & Mason, 2007;St. George, Mannes, & Hoffman, 1997).…”

“…George, Mannes, & Hoffman, 1997). For example, readers with lower WM capacity are less likely to generate bridging inferences (Calvo, 2001;Linderholm & van den Broek, 2002), and when they do they require more processing time to do so (Estevez & Calvo, 2000, Rai et al, 2014. Furthermore, when WM resources are consumed, for example by a WM load task or by anxiety, it exacerbates these relationships (Darke, 1988;Rai et al, 2011Rai et al, , 2014.…”

“…Only the visuospatial load impaired predictive inferences, and they concluded that bridging inferences do not require WM. However, a plethora of studies have shown the importance of WM resources in drawing inferences during text comprehension (Allbritton, 2004;Calvo, 2001Calvo, , 2005Just & Carpenter, 1992;Linderholm & van den Broek, 2002;Rai et al, 2011Rai et al, , 2014Reichle & Mason, 2007;St. George et al, 1997).…”

Is the Student-Centered Learning Style More Effective Than the Teacher-Student Double-Centered Learning Style in Improving Reading Performance?

“…To be more specific, in reading comprehension, linguistic schema works on the reading process through cue retrieval (e.g., vocabulary meaning) from the mental knowledge structure to interpret and integrate selected new information into the existing knowledge base (e.g., Nassaji, 2002). In reading comprehension, besides general comprehension ability, the other relevant abilities (e.g., inference and main idea abstract) and reading affect (e.g., reading anxiety) also determine the process of reading comprehension (Rai et al, 2015; Silva and Cain, 2015; Stanley et al, 2018).…”

Don't watch me read: how mere presence and mandatory waiting periods affect consumer attention to disclosures

“…However, we acknowledge that some empirical findings on mere presence are inconsistent with this hypothesis. For example, a study of reading comprehension showed that people reading texts in their native language were not negatively influenced by the presence of others (Rai et al, 2015). Furthermore, being observed by an experimenter or filmed by a video camera can increase participants' ability to pay attention and identify specific visual objects (Miyazaki, 2013(Miyazaki, , 2015.…”