The Effects of Rural and Urban Areas on Time Allocated to Self-Employment: Differences between Men and Women

Abstract

This study investigates the association of the rural–urban divide and the time individuals allocate to self-employment. The empirical analysis uses fixed effects modelling on data from the UK Household Longitudinal Survey over the period 2009–2019. The study identifies significant differences in the time men and women allocate to self-employment between rural and urban areas according to their career age group. While men and women tend to allocate more time to selfemployment in their senior career age when residents of urban areas, the time they allocate to self-employment between rural and urban areas in early- and mid-career age differs markedly. More importantly, we find that significant differences exist not only between residents of rural and urban areas, but also between residents of these areas and in-migrants to these areas. We find a significant positive effect on the time senior career age women who migrate to rural areas allocate to self-employment. In contrast, we find that early career men who move from rural to urban areas allocate significantly more time to self-employment. The results reveal the existence of complex dynamics between gender and age, which affect the allocation of time to self-employment between rural and urban areas.

Entrepreneurship and Intrapreneurship in Social, Sustainable, and Economic Development: Opportunities and Challenges for Future Research

“…Entrepreneurship (Gender) Litsardopoulos, Saridakis, and Hand [53] This research advanced knowledge on the existence of complex dynamics between gender and age, which affect the allocation of time to self-employment between rural and urban areas. Butkouskaya, Llonch-Andreu, and Alarcón-del-Amo [54] There is a positive relationship between entrepreneurial orientation (EO), integrated marketing communications (IMC), and performance among SMEs in Spain and Belarus.…”

“…This research opens up questions on how entrepreneurial activity (and the formation of these clusters) takes place across time and space. In this regard, Litsardopoulos et al [53] empirically demonstrate that individuals allocate time to self-employment based on gender characteristics and the place (i.e., urban and rural areas) they live. Certainly, time, dedication, and motivation matter to move forward projects regardless if these are new ventures or initiatives within existing companies.…”

Does It Matter Where You Live? Rural–Urban Context Among Women Entrepreneurs in Pakistan

“…When assessing entrepreneurship in a developing context, we need to understand the factors that motivate women to start and run a business ( Anwar-Ul-Haq et al, 2014 ). Several variables that affect entrepreneurship as a career choice have been identified including age ( Dary and Kuunibe, 2012 ; Litsardopoulos et al, 2020 ), education ( Shehu and Abubakar, 2015 ) marital status ( Dary and Kuunibe, 2012 ), household size ( Babulo et al, 2008 ), family support ( Constantinidis et al, 2019 ), location ( Brown et al, 2006 ; Shehu and Abubakar, 2015 ), access to markets ( Wanyama et al, 2010 ), access to credit ( Kuwornu and Dumayiri, 2014 ; Tisdell et al, 2020 ) and social networks ( Shehu and Abubakar, 2015 ). Social networks in literature about livelihood activities have been reported ( Scoones, 1998 ), and in the rural context, social networks are more important as compared to urban settings particularly for securing micro-loans ( Tisdell et al, 2020 ).…”