The effects of pubertal timing and alexithymia on symptoms of muscle dysmorphia and the drive for muscularity in men.

Abstract

Relationships between pubertal timing and alexithymia on the development of muscle dysmorphia (MD) and drive for muscularity (DM) in men are unknown. Our purpose was to determine if pubertal timing and alexithymia effect the development of MD and DM. The sample included 304 men (Mage = 22.49, SD = 4.38). We used the Modified Pubertal Development Scale, Twenty-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale, Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory, and the Drive for Muscularity Scale. Multivariate analysis of variance analyses were used to measure the effects of alexithymia on muscle dysmorphic disorder and DM. There was a significant mean vector difference (A = .93, F(3, 238) = 6.17, p < .05) between men with low and high levels of alexithymia such that men with low alexithymia scored lower on the three subscales of the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory. Men with higher levels of alexithymia are more likely to report MD symptoms but not DM. A shortened version of the Modified Pubertal Development Scale did not significantly predict symptoms of MD or DM. Implications are discussed.

Preadolescents’ Reliance on and Internalization of Media Appearance Ideals: Triggers and Consequences

“…This finding is in line with previous cross-sectional research reporting a positive association between peer appearance criticism and the internalization of media appearance ideals among preadolescent boys and girls (e.g., Jones et al, 2004;Lawler & Nixon, 2011;Rodgers, Paxton, & McLean, 2014;Yamamiya et al, 2016). Differential levels of body image distress (e.g., Leone et al, 2015;McCabe et al, 2010) can, according to uses and gratifications theory (Katz et al, 1974), foster preadolescents' use of media as a body image coping strategy (Cash et al, 2005). In this context, scholars have previously highlighted the role of early puberty (Lindberg et al, 2007) and aversive peer appearance feedback (Jones et al, 2004) as psychological stressors that produce body image distress among youth.…”

“…Hence, it could be that body image stressors, such as peer appearance criticism and pubertal changes, might spur preadolescents to look for ways of improving their appearance, such as those proposed by media, and to compare themselves to media images with the aim of appearance fixing (i.e., appearance-related self-improvement; Rodgers et al, 2015). Fluctuations in pubertal timing have been repeatedly studied in the literature and their association with body image has been well documented (Leone et al, 2015). For girls, pubertal changes, such as an increase in body fat, move them further away from the ideal female body (e.g., Tremblay & Lariviere, 2009).…”

A meta-analysis of the drive for muscularity's relationships with exercise behaviour, disordered eating, supplement consumption, and exercise dependence

“…behaviours, including exercise participation, disordered eating, and supplement consumption (Dakanalis, Timko, et al, 2015;Galli, Petrie, Reel, Chatterton, & Baghurst, 2014;Leone et al, 2015). With respect to these specific correlates, however, there is mixed evidence for the hypothesised relationships (Edwards et al, 2014).…”

Adolescent Boys are at Risk for Body Image Dissatisfaction and Muscle Dysmorphia

“…Pubertal development in boys moves them closer to the societal "ideal" by increasing height and muscle mass while decreasing body fat and enhancing masculine features (e.g., body and facial hair) indicating maturity and masculinity. Boys who lag in pubertal development may feel inferior and experience greater body image dissatisfaction (Leone et al, 2015, McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2004. The current study did not assess pubertal timing.…”

“…Retrospective reports of men with muscle dysmorphia (MD) indicate that symptoms manifest as early as the middle teenage years, making this an important age group to study. Overall, MD has been theorized to have an average age of onset of 19.4 years (Leone et al, 2015).…”