The Effects of Cationic Surfactants on Marine Biofilm Growth on Hydrogels

Abstract

A method for the quantification of biofilm formation on hydrogel protective coatings for optical sensors and cameras has been developed using fluorescein diacetate (FDA) hydrolysis. In conjunction with these measurements the release of the fouling resistant cationic surfactants benzalkonium chloride, tallowbenzyldimethylammonium chloride and dicocodimethylammonium chloride was measured, using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), to enable correlation to be made between release and biofilm resistance and thus determine the active lifetime of such coatings. Results indicate that the twin-chained material, dicocodimethylammonium chloride, produced superior biofouling resistance as, at the 12 week time point, little fouling was detected on this coating. The hydrogel containing the long-chained tallowbenzyldimethylammonium chloride (mainly C16 and C18 chains) was the next best fouling resistant material, withstanding biofilm formation for 9 weeks. This correlates with the fact that each of these materials had an extremely slow to zero release rate, due to their irreversible binding to the hydrogel over the experimental timescale. Incomparison the shorter chained benzalkonium chloride (mainly C12 and C14), showed signs of biofilm formation at the 3 week time point.

Toxicity of Benzalkonium Chloride on Monoalgal Cultures and Natural Assemblages of Marine Phytoplankton

“…Specifically, marine uses of BAC include treatment against fungi or other infections in aquaculture species (e.g., Hoskins and Dalziel 1984;Lio-Po and Sanvictores 1986), as algaecides (Lee et al 1994), and as a component of fouling-resistant surfaces (His et al 1996;Parr et al 1998;Smith et al 2002). Few works have been published on the effect of BAC on the growth rates of different marine phytoplankton species.…”

The prevention of microfouling and macrofouling on hydrogels impregnated with either Arquad 2C-75® or benzalkonium chloride

“…The addition of BAC to the hydrogel, however, did not reduce the contact angle as it was found not to be significantly different from the contact angles of the untreated hydrogels. This may be explained by the fact that BAC is very water-soluble and, therefore, will be predominantly in the water portion of the hydrogel, enabling it to diffuse out (Smith et al 2002). 2C-75 1 is less water soluble and possibly will attach to the more hydrophobic backbone of the polymer, allowing it to have more influence on the surface properties of the polymer.…”

“…Previous trials in the Firth of Clyde showed that hydrogels containing either of the cationic surfactants benzalkonium chloride (BAC) or dicocodimethylammonium chloride (Arquad 2C-75 1 ) are highly effective at preventing microfouling for up to 3 months (Smith et al 2002). However, in the Firth of Clyde, these trials mainly have been conducted during times of the year when the fouling pressure is not predominantly macrofaunal in nature.…”

“…BAC is predominately composed of C 12 and C 14 chains and is watersoluble. It is, therefore, contained mainly in the pore water of the hydrogels with only a small amount becoming irreversibly bound to the hydrophobic parts of the hydrogel (Smith et al 2002). Over time, the BAC diffuses out of the hydrogel through a diffusion gradient.…”

The Use of the Marine Microalga Tisochrysis lutea (T-iso) in Standard Toxicity Tests; Comparative Sensitivity With Other Test Species

“…Thus, contamination by pesticides is a serious water pollution issue, and CPF is listed as a priority substance according to Annex I of the Directive 2013/39/EU. Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is a quaternary ammonium compound broadly used in disinfection treatments in aquaculture species (Hoskins and Dalziel, 1984;Lio-Po and Sanvictores, 1986), as an algaecide (Lee et al, 1994) and as an antifouling component (His et al, 1996;Parr et al, 1998;Smith et al, 2002). Effects on phytoplankton species were studied in Pérez et al (2009).…”