The sections in this article are:
Physical Background
Dissipative Flows
Hyperosmotic Regulation
Reducing Dissipative Flows
Compensatory Flows: Water
Compensatory Flows: Active Ion Absorption
The Frog Skin Model: Symmetric Solutions and Voltage Clamp
A Revised Model: Open‐Circuit and Dilute Solutions
Ionic Regulation in Other Aquatic Vertebrates
Apical Membrane Behavior: Fluxes and Electrical
Apical Membrane Mechanisms and the Frog Skin Model
The Energetic Cost of Osmotic Regulation in Freshwater Vertebrates
Acid‐Base Regulation and Epithelial Ion Transfer
Hypoosmotic‐Hypoionic Regulation
Reducing Dissipative Flows
Compensatory Flows: Water
Compensatory Flows: Ions
Model for Salt Extrusion by Gills
Remaining Questions about Hyporegulator Gill Function
Reptilian Salt Gland
Acid‐Base Balance in Marine Fish
Isosmotic, Hypoionic Regulation
Diffusion Gradients
Evasive Mechanisms: Urea/
TMAO
Compensatory Mechanisms: Urea/
TMAO
Evasive Mechanisms: Water and Electrolytes
Compensatory Flows: Ions
Intracellular Osmotic Regulation
Crab‐Eating Frog and Coelacanth
The Energetic Cost of Osmotic Regulation in
SW
Marine Mammals
Summary
Osmotic Regulation:
FW
Osmotic Regulation:
SW
Acid‐Base Balance