The effects of a physical and cognitive training intervention vs. physical training alone on older adults’ physical activity: A randomized controlled trial with extended follow-up during COVID-19

Abstract

Background Executive functions underlie self-regulation and are thus important for physical activity and adaptation to new situations. The aim was to investigate, if yearlong physical and cognitive training (PTCT) had greater effects on physical activity among older adults than physical training (PT) alone, and if executive functions predicted physical activity at baseline, after six (6m) and twelve months (12m) of the interventions, one-year post-intervention follow-up and an extended follow-up during COVID-19 lockdown. Methods Data from a single-blinded, parallel-group randomized controlled trial (PASSWORD-study, ISRCTN52388040) were utilized. Participants were 70–85 years old community-dwelling men and women from Jyväskylä, Finland. PT (n = 159) included supervised resistance, walking and balance training, home-exercises and self-administered moderate activity. PTCT (n = 155) included PT and cognitive training targeting executive functions on a computer program. Physical activity was assessed with a one-item, seven-scale question. Executive functions were assessed with color-word Stroop, Trail Making Test (TMT) B-A and Letter Fluency. Changes in physical activity were modeled with multinomial logistic models and the impact of executive functions on physical activity with latent change score models. Results No significant group-by-time interaction was observed for physical activity (p>0.1). The subjects were likely to select an activity category higher than baseline throughout the study (pooled data: B = 0.720–1.614, p<0.001–0.046). Higher baseline Stroop predicted higher physical activity through all subsequent time-points (pooled data: B = 0.011–0.013, p = 0.015–0.030). Higher baseline TMT B–A predicted higher physical activity at 6m (pooled data: B = 0.007, p = 0.006) and during COVID-19 (B = 0.005, p = 0.030). In the PT group, higher baseline Letter Fluency predicted higher physical activity at 12m (B = -0.028, p = 0.030) and follow-up (B = -0.042, p = 0.002). Conclusions Cognitive training did not have additive effects over physical training alone on physical activity, but multicomponent training and higher executive function at baseline may support adaptation to and maintenance of a physically active lifestyle among older adults.

Physical Activity Changes From Before to During the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Community-Dwelling Older Adults in Finland

“…Therefore, our results may overestimate the increase in PA in the older population. However, similar observations by another study conducted among older adults in the same geographical area during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic (Savikangas et al, 2021) support our results of the direction of the change in PA among communitydwelling older adults. It should also good be borne in mind that no curfew was imposed in Finland, and people were encouraged to engage in outdoor walking and hiking.…”

The Impact of Multimorbidity Patterns on Changes in Physical Activity and Physical Capacity Among Older Adults Participating in a Year-Long Exercise Intervention

“…Earlier research has suggested that exercise interventions can increase physical activity and improve physical capacity in community-dwelling older adults (DiPietro et al, 2019;Sansano-Nadal et al, 2019). This has been supported by our previous studies (Savikangas et al, 2021;Sipilä et al, 2021). During a year-long multicomponent intervention that included physical and cognitive training, older adults increased both their physical activity and their physical capacities, including aerobic endurance, muscle strength, and lower-extremity functioning (Savikangas et al, 2021;Sipilä et al, 2021).…”

“…During a year-long multicomponent intervention that included physical and cognitive training, older adults increased both their physical activity and their physical capacities, including aerobic endurance, muscle strength, and lower-extremity functioning (Savikangas et al, 2021;Sipilä et al, 2021). These benefits may have extended beyond the intervention period, as the participants reported a higher physical activity category after the 1-year follow-up period than at baseline (Savikangas et al, 2021). However, the effects of exercise-based interventions may not be similar for healthy older adults or those with underlying chronic disease conditions.…”

Motor learning in golf—a systematic review

“…Examples include visual occlusion, perceptual-cognitive training and mental imaging. However, its general efficacy is still under debate, as some studies only show short-term enhancements of motor learning [for review see ( 70 )] whereas others argue the current state of research does not show clear benefits of cognitive training ( 71 , 72 ). We identified 12 studies that used some form of cognitive training to study motor learning in golf.…”