The Effectiveness and Micro-costing Analysis of a Universal, School-Based, Social–Emotional Learning Programme in the UK: A Cluster-Randomised Controlled Trial

Abstract

There are a growing number of school-based interventions designed to promote children's social and emotional learning. One such intervention, PATHS (Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies), was evaluated in a randomised controlled trial involving 5,074 pupils aged 4-6 years at baseline in 56 primary schools across a large city in the UK. The programme was implemented for two academic years. The primary outcome measure was the teacher-rated Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). A secondary measure was the PATHS Teacher Rating Scale (PTRS). Observations of child and teacher behaviours were undertaken in a third of intervention and control schools using the Teacher-Pupil Observation Tool (T-POT). Regarding fidelity, dose and adherence were measured via weekly logs completed by teachers, and a semi-structured questionnaire completed by PATHS coaches was used as a global measure of fidelity (capturing adherence, dose and quality). A cost-consequence analysis examined programme costs from a multi-agency public sector perspective. At one year post-baseline there were no statistically significant differences between the programme and control groups on the SDQ subscales or the SDQ total difficulties and impact scores. There were statistically significant differences favouring the programme group for six out of 11 sub-scales on the secondary outcome measure (PTRS). At two years post-baseline, there were no statistically significant differences between the groups on either measure. Fidelity, according to the global measure, was relatively strong, and there was no relationship between fidelity and treatment effects. The average cost of PATHS was £12,666 per school or £139 per child. The study, which was fully powered and independent of the programme developer, shows no statistically significant effect of the programme on child behaviour or emotional well-being.3

A meta‐analytic review of social problem‐solving interventions in preschool settings

“…Eighteen studies did not meet the baseline criterion because they lacked the relevant SD information or did not include a control group to make comparisons (Berry et al, 2016;Carpenter & Nangle, 2002;Ciancio et al, 2001;Denham & Burton, 1996;Forness et al, 2000). Studies do not meet criteria for baseline equivalence if the differences between groups are greater than 0.25 SD.…”

“…It is important to note that of the 24 studies that included teachers as the primary interventionists, authors in 17 studies described providing an initial training for teachers, and of the 11 studies that specified initial training length, the average was 2.7 days (range: 1-5 days). In five studies, authors provided a booster training midway through the intervention (Bierman et al, 2008;Bierman et al, 2014;Domitrovich et al, 2007;Moore et al, 2015;Nix et al, 2013), and in nine studies, the teachers were provided ongoing training support from coaches/consultants (Berry et al, 2016;Bierman et al, 2008;Bierman et al, 2014;Conner & Fraser, 2011;Domitrovich et al, 2007;Han et al, 2005;Moore et al, 2015;Nix et al, 2013;Nix et al, 2016). In two studies, teachers were trained at monthly sessions throughout the intervention (Upshur et al, 2013;…”

“…Only eight out of 31 studies met the baseline equivalence criterion for all of the outcome measures. Eighteen studies did not meet the baseline criterion because they lacked the relevant SD information or did not include a control group to make comparisons (Berry et al, 2016;Carpenter & Nangle, 2002;Ciancio et al, 2001;Denham & Burton, 1996;Forness et al, 2000). One study did not meet the criterion because it acknowledged group differences but did not control the difference in the analytic model (Hughes & Cline, 2015).…”

“…Twelve of the 31 studies included SPS as one component of a SEL curriculum. Examples of this format included four studies of the Preschool PATHS program(Berry et al, 2016;Domitrovich, Cortes, & Greenberg, 2007;Hamre, Pianta, Mashburn, & Downer, 2012;Hughes & Cline, 2015), that targeted several SEL domains and included SPS as one of four thematic units (prosocial and interpersonal skills, emotional understanding and expression, self-control, and SPS). Similarly, researchers in three studies(McMahon, Washburn, Felix, Yakin, & Childrey, 2000;Upshur, Wenz-Gross, & Reed, 2013;Wenz-Gross & Upshur, 2012) examined the Second Step curriculum that consisted of three units of instruction on empathy, emotion management, and SPS.…”

Cost-Effectiveness of a School-Based Social and Emotional Learning Intervention: Evidence from a Cluster-Randomised Controlled Trial of the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies Curriculum

“…Numerous randomised controlled trials (RCTs) have consistently established small-to-moderate effects on a range of outcomes, including children's social and emotional skills, externalising problems (e.g. aggressive behaviour) and academic attainment [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25]. However, many trials finding positive effects of PATHS have involved or been led by the developer.…”