The effect of implementation intentions on event-, time-, and activity-based prospective memory in typically developing children

Abstract

Prospective memory (PM) refers to the ability to remember and complete planned tasks in the future, which relies on working memory (WM) for encoding and maintaining the intention. Implementation intention is a useful strategy for improving PM function in adults. Yet the effect of implementation intentions in children, and whether factors such as age, gender, and WM capacity could modulate its effect remains unclear. In this study, we examined the effect of implementation intentions on PM in 154 children at 7–11 years of age. The standard group received standard instructions on PM task, whereas the implementation intention group received additional PM instruction, which comprised the “if . . . then . . .” format and guided visual imagery of the PM scenario. Participants completed the computer-based PM tasks (tapping into focal event-, time-, and activity-based PM) and the WM tests. The results showed that the two groups exhibited similar focal event-, time-, and activity-based PM performance. Although age and gender did not modulate the effect of implementation intentions on PM, WM capacity moderated the implementation intention effect on time-based PM. Specifically, higher WM capacity predicted higher implementation intention benefit. These findings suggest that children with higher WM capacity may have higher chance to benefit from the implementation intention strategy.

Improving children’s ability to remember intentions: a literature review on strategies to improve prospective memory during childhood

“…Unlike EFT and performance predictions, implementation intentions did not affect PM performance in children between 7 and 15 years (Kretschmer-Trendowicz et al, 2021 ; Yang et al, 2023 ; Zimmermann & Meier, 2010 ). It is not clear why this encoding strategy, which is quite effective with adults (Chen et al, 2015 ) and highly similar to EFT, did not positively affect children’s PM performance.…”

“…In response to these contrasting and limited results, a very recent study has investigated the effect of this strategy in children between 7 and 11 years of age on different PM tasks (i.e., event-, time-, and activity-based), as well as underlying processes and possible moderators of the effect (Yang et al, 2023 ). Participants were required to play the Fishing Game, a computerized PM task developed for children (Yang et al, 2011 ).…”

“…These three studies similarly show that implementation intentions do not appear to work effectively in children. The first two studies (Kretschmer-Trendowicz et al, 2021 ; Zimmermann & Meier, 2010 ) used focal PM tasks, whereas the third also included activity- and time-based PM tasks (Yang et al, 2023 ). Implementation intentions also do not appear to be effective with the latter PM tasks.…”

“…This difference in the effectiveness of the two strategies might be due to methodological differences among studies, such as PM task characteristics. In fact, implementation intentions have not been shown to have any effect on children’s performance on focal and specific PM tasks (Kretschmer-Trendowicz et al, 2021 ; Yang et al, 2023 ), whereas a numerical but non-significant difference has been observed when the PM task is focal and categorical (Zimmermann & Meier, 2010 ). Moreover, in Yang et al ’ ( 2023 ) study, children with higher WM capacity benefitted from implementation intentions in a time-based task.…”

“…In fact, implementation intentions have not been shown to have any effect on children’s performance on focal and specific PM tasks (Kretschmer-Trendowicz et al, 2021 ; Yang et al, 2023 ), whereas a numerical but non-significant difference has been observed when the PM task is focal and categorical (Zimmermann & Meier, 2010 ). Moreover, in Yang et al ’ ( 2023 ) study, children with higher WM capacity benefitted from implementation intentions in a time-based task. Similarly, EFT efficiently enhanced children’s PM performance in a focal and categorical PM task as well as in a non-focal PM task (Kretschmer-Trendowicz et al, 2016 , 2017 ).…”