“…Bias depends on the sample size (Hanson & Béguin, 2002; Kang & Petersen, 2012), the number of items with parameters available from previous calibrations (e.g., Arai & Mayekawa, 2011; Kim, Cole, & Mwavita, 2018), the amount of cross‐national DIF (Sachse, Roppelt, & Haag, 2016), and shifts in the latent ability distributions across assessments (e.g., Baldwin, Baldwin, & Nering, 2007; Keller, Keller, & Baldwin, 2007). Keller and Keller (2011, 2015), however, showed that FIPC works best for complex changes in the latent ability distributions and in cases where the content of the assessment changes. Zhao and Hambleton (2017) showed that FIPC was robust against ability shifts across two adjacent assessments.…”