The Ecology of Mutualism

Abstract

Elementary ecology texts tell us that organisms interact in three fundamental ways, generally given the names competition, predation, and mutualism. The third member has gotten short shrift (264), and even its name is not generally agreed on. Terms that may be considered synonyms, in whole or part, are symbiosis, commensalism, cooperation, protocooperation, mutual aid, facilitation, reciprocal altruism, and entraide. We use the term mutualism, defined as "an interaction between species that is beneficial to both," since it has both historical priority (311) and general currency. Symbiosis is "the living together of two organisms in close association," and modifiers are used to specify dependence on the interaction (facultative or obligate) and the range of species that can take part (oligophilic or polyphilic). We make the normal apologies concerning forcing continuous variation and diverse interactions into simple dichotomous classifications, for these and all subsequent definitions.

Diversity and classification of mycorrhizal associations

“…Mutualistic associations include a wide range of direct and indirect, or symbiotic and nonsymbiotic associations, many of which function by means other than nutrient transfer (Boucher et al, 1982;Paracer & Ahmadjian, 2000). As explained above, all mycorrhizal associations are symbiotic, but some are not mutualistic.…”

Mutually-Beneficial Renewable Energy Systems

“…As a form of symbiosis, the concept of mutualism offers a starting point for understanding and emphasizing opportunities for longterm cooperation and enduring co-benefits across human and nonhuman communities (Bronstein 2015). In ecological terms, mutualisms involve direct and indirect interactions between two species that result in benefits to both (Boucher, James, and Keeler 1982;Bronstein 2015). While the perspective here is informed by the ecological concept of mutualism, the term mutual benefit is preferred, reserving mutualism for its ecological usage (West, Griffin, and Gardner 2007) until a greater consensus can develop regarding its implications as a novel metaphor (Larson 2011).…”

Animal Agriculture: Symbiosis, Culture, or Ethical Conflict?

“…Although the human adaptation to the symbiotic relation with farm animals has mainly been cultural, the development of lactose tolerance among adults in dairy-based cultures indicates a relationship lasting long enough to also affect human biology. A strong geographic concordance among cattle milk gene diversity, human lactose tolerance and the distribution of the earliest European cattle pastoralists has been identified, suggesting that farming practices since the Neolithic era has left reciprocal genetic signatures in cattle and human populations 1 Symbiosis can be defined as "the living together of two organisms in close association" (Boucher et al, 1982). Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 19, 47-56, 2006 Final manuscript version from North Central Europe (Beja-Pereiera et al, 2003).…”