The dominant exploiters of the fig/pollinator mutualism vary across continents, but their costs fall consistently on the male reproductive function of figs

Segar, Simon T.; Cook, James M.

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.2012.01370.x

Cited by 31 publications

(48 citation statements)

References 47 publications

(107 reference statements)

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“…Most wasps in the genus Sycoscapter are probably parasitoids of fig‐pollinating wasps. This has been demonstrated directly from the larval‐feeding habit in one species (Tzeng et al , ) and inferred from statistical patterns in some other species (Segar & Cook, ; Suleman et al , ), including those studied here (Segar et al , ).…”

Section: Methodssupporting

confidence: 74%

Fighting in fig wasps: do males avoid killing brothers or do they never meet them?

Cook

Reuter

Moore

et al. 2015

Ecological Entomology

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1. In many fig wasp species, armoured wingless males regularly engage in lethal fights for access to females inside figs, which act as discrete mating patches. 2. Kin selection generally opposes killing brothers, because their reproductive success provides indirect genetic benefits (inclusive fitness). However, siblicide may be avoided if (i) brothers do not occur in the same figs, or (ii) males avoid fighting brothers in the same fig. Alternatively, (iii) siblicide may occur because intense mate competition between brothers at the local scale overcomes kin selection effects, or (iv) males do not recognise kin. 3. A fig may also contain wasps from other closely related species and it is not known if males also fight with these individuals. 4. Nine microsatellite loci were used in the first genetic analysis of fighting in fig wasps. We assigned species and sibling identities to males and tested alternative fighting scenarios for three Sycoscapter wasp species in figs of Ficus rubiginosa.5. Approximately 60% of figs contained males from more than one Sycoscapter species and approximately 80% of fights were between conspecifics, but a surprising 20% were between heterospecific males.6. Within species, few figs contained brothers, suggesting that females typically lay one son per fig. Overall, most males do not compete with brothers and all fights observed were between unrelated males.

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Section: Methodssupporting

confidence: 74%

Fighting in fig wasps: do males avoid killing brothers or do they never meet them?

Cook

Reuter

Moore

et al. 2015

Ecological Entomology

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“…From the host tree's perspective, its female, but not male, reproductive output is reduced by P. taiwanensis , which is contrary to the more widespread situation, where NPFW reduce the male reproductive success of figs more than they reduce female reproductive success (Segar & Cook, ; Suleman et al , ). The negative effects of P. taiwanensis on seed numbers were substantial, with figs containing 20 or more offspring of P. taiwanensis containing less than half the number of seeds than figs from the same crops where it was absent (and pollinator offspring were present).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 96%

First record of an apparently rare fig wasp feeding strategy: obligate seed predation

Wang

Matthews

Ratcliffe

et al. 2014

Ecological Entomology

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1. Fig trees require host‐specific agaonid fig wasps for pollination, but their figs also support numerous non‐pollinating fig wasps (NPFW) that gall fig tissues or develop as parasitoids. 2. Ficus microcarpa L. is widely naturalised outside its native range and the most invasive fig tree species. Seed predators are widely used for the biological control of invasive plants, but no obligate seed predatory (as opposed to ovule or fig wall galling) NPFW have been recorded previously from any fig trees. 3. Philotrypesis NPFW are usually regarded as parasitoids or ‘inquilines’ (parasitoids that also eat plant material) of pollinator fig wasps, but the present study provides evidence that Philotrypesis taiwanensis, a NPFW associated with F. microcarpa, is an obligate seed predator: (i) adults emerge from seeds of typical appearance, with a surrounding elaiosome; (ii) it shows no preference for figs occupied by fig wasp species, other than the pollinator; (iii) it only develops in figs that contain pollinated ovules, avoiding figs occupied by an agaonid that fails to pollinate; (iv) larvae are distributed in layers where seeds are concentrated and (v) it has a negative impact on seed but not pollinator offspring numbers. 4. Philotrypesis is a large genus, and further species are likely to be seed predators.

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“…). Therefore, non‐pollinators, which have generally been viewed as having negative effects on the fig–fig wasp mutualism (Janzen ; Bronstein ; Cook & Rasplus ; Herre, Jandér & Machado ; Segar & Cook ; but see Dunn et al . ; Al‐Beidh et al .…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Parasites exert conflicting selection pressures to affect reproductive asynchrony of their host plant in an obligate pollination mutualism

Borges

2014

Journal of Ecology

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Summary1. Plant reproductive phenology is generally viewed as an individual's strategy to maximize gamete exchange and propagule dispersal and is often considered largely dependent on patterns of floral initiation. Reproductive phenology, however, can be affected by proximate responses to pollinators, parasites and herbivores which could influence floral longevity or fruit development time. 2. We examined the influence of insect interactants on within-plant reproductive phenology in the fig-fig wasp nursery pollination mutualism in Ficus racemosa (Moraceae). Most figs support a wasp community comprised of a mutualistic pollinator, with several host-plant-specific non-pollinating herbivorous gallers and parasitoids. These wasps reproduce within enclosed inflorescences called syconia, which develop into fruit after pollination. While different wasp species oviposit into syconia at varying times during its ontogeny, all wasp progeny are constrained to exit syconia simultaneously just prior to fruit ripening. Developing larvae of early-ovipositing wasps may hasten syconium ontogeny through formation of earlier and larger nutrient sinks, whereas larvae of latearriving parasites may lengthen syconium ontogeny to complete their development successfully. Seeds are also important nutrient sinks. The number of seeds and the type and number of developing wasps may therefore be expected to influence syconium development times, thereby affecting the reproductive synchrony of syconia on a plant. 3. Observations on naturally pollinated and parasitized syconia indicated that their seed and wasp content affected syconium development time. Experimental manipulations of syconia to produce only seeds or various combinations of wasps confirmed this finding. Early-ovipositing galler progeny reduced syconium development times, while gallers ovipositing concurrently with pollinators had no effect on syconium development. Late-ovipositing parasitoid progeny, the presence of only seeds within the syconium, or delayed pollination increased syconium development time. The differential development of syconia, which was influenced by mutualistic or parasitic progeny, accordingly contributed to within-tree reproductive asynchrony. 4. Synthesis. Individual reproductive units in fig trees called syconia, which also function as brood sites for pollinating and parasitic fig wasps, have plastic development durations dependent on pollination timing and species of wasps developing within them. Syconium development times are a likely compromise between conflicting demands from developing seeds and different wasp species.

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The dominant exploiters of the fig/pollinator mutualism vary across continents, but their costs fall consistently on the male reproductive function of figs

Cited by 31 publications

References 47 publications

Fighting in fig wasps: do males avoid killing brothers or do they never meet them?

Fighting in fig wasps: do males avoid killing brothers or do they never meet them?

First record of an apparently rare fig wasp feeding strategy: obligate seed predation

Parasites exert conflicting selection pressures to affect reproductive asynchrony of their host plant in an obligate pollination mutualism

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