The Docosahexanoic Acid: From the Maternal-Fetal Dyad to Early Life Toward Metabolomics

Abstract

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an essential ω-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCPUFA) and represents the dominant structural fatty acid in the retina and in the brain's gray matter. Due to its active participation in the development of the nervous system, DHA is one of the most studied LCPUFA and is currently considered a critical nutrient during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Increasing evidence in literature suggests that an adequate concentration of DHA is required from the fetal stage through to early life to ensure optimal neurological development. Likewise, many studies in literature demonstrated that an adequate supply of DHA during pregnancy and lactation is essential to promote proper brain development in utero and in early life. Daily supplementation of DHA in newborns has potentially stronger effects compared to maternal supplementation during pregnancy. Supplementation initiated in the second year of life in children born preterm did not result in global cognitive development improvements. Preliminary findings arising from metabolomics has reported that mother's milk and infant formula supplementation of Vitamin D associated with DHA results in a higher antioxidant and protective action, with a possible positive influence on renal function and body fat on preterm infants compared to those receiving only vitamin D. Recent applications of metabolomic studies on newborns may lead to a better understanding of the metabolic process linked to early nutrition and, subsequently, to the development of targeted and personalized nutritional strategies.

Nutritional Importance of Selected Fresh Fishes, Shrimps and Mollusks to Meet Compliance with Nutritional Guidelines of n-3 LC-PUFA Intake in Spain

“…n-3 LC-PUFA are present in membranes and influence their structure and functions. They are key nutrients for growth and maturation during pregnancy and early life [ 2 ]. Furthermore, they are precursors of many anti-inflammatory mediators, i.e., eicosanoids and docosanoids, and they also modulate the expression of key genes [ 3 ].…”

Human milk polyunsaturated fatty acids are related to neurodevelopmental, anthropometric, and allergic outcomes in early life: a systematic review

“…47 A recent review suggests that supply of DHA to newborns has stronger effects compared to maternal supplementation in pregnancy. 48 The 2020 US Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee Report also reviewed evidence comprehensively to conclude that antenatal n -3 PUFA supplementation showed little benefit on growth and neurodevelopment outcomes. 49 Intervention with n -3 fatty acids is considered more effective when targeted to newborn.…”

Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation in Lactating Women Increases Breast Milk and Erythrocyte Membrane Docosahexaenoic Acid Concentrations and Alters Infant n–6:n–3 Fatty Acid Ratio

“…Thus, adequate breastfeeding may compensate for prenatal imbalances in maternal dietary n–6:n–3 ratio [ 45 ]. DHA concentrations in human milk vary across countries and regions, with low concentrations in Canada and the United States and higher concentrations in Japan [ 46 ]. DHA concentrations in breast milk decrease from 0.5% in colostrum to 0.25% in mature milk [ [47] , [48] , [49] ] .…”