The Deer and the Tiger

Schaller, George B.

doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226736570.001.0001

Cited by 252 publications

(264 citation statements)

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“…By following a radio-collared African leopard, Zuberbü hler et al (1999) found that after higher alarm call rates by primates, the leopard gave up its hiding location and left the hunt significantly faster than would be expected by chance. Schaller (1967) observed similar responses for Asian tigers. Because natural cases of predation on orang-utans are rare, playback experiments with potential predators may be needed to elucidate this function.…”

Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 65%

Tool use in wild orang-utans modifies sound production: a functionally deceptive innovation?

et al. 2009

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Culture has long been assumed to be uniquely human but recent studies, in particular on great apes, have suggested that cultures also occur in non-human primates. The most apparent cultural behaviours in great apes involve tools in the subsistence context where they are clearly functional to obtain valued food. On the other hand, tool-use to modify acoustic communication has been reported only once and its function has not been investigated. Thus, the question whether this is an adaptive behaviour remains open, even though evidence indicates that it is socially transmitted (i.e. cultural). Here we report on wild orang-utans using tools to modulate the maximum frequency of one of their sounds, the kiss squeak, emitted in distress. In this variant, orang-utans strip leaves off a twig and hold them to their mouth while producing a kiss squeak. Using leaves as a tool lowers the frequency of the call compared to a kiss squeak without leaves or with only a hand to the mouth. If the lowering of the maximum frequency functions in orang-utans as it does in other animals, two predictions follow: (i) kiss squeak frequency is related to body size and (ii) the use of leaves will occur in situations of most acute danger. Supporting these predictions, kiss squeaks without tools decreased with body size and kiss squeaks with leaves were only emitted by highly distressed individuals. Moreover, we found indications that the calls were under volitional control. This finding is significant for at least two reasons. First, although few animal species are known to deceptively lower the maximum frequency of their calls to exaggerate their perceived size to the listener (e.g. vocal tract elongation in male deer) it has never been reported that animals may use tools to achieve this, or that they are primates. Second, it shows that the orang-utan culture extends into the communicative domain, thus challenging the traditional assumption that primate calling behaviour is overall purely emotional.

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Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 65%

Tool use in wild orang-utans modifies sound production: a functionally deceptive innovation?

et al. 2009

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“…The wide geographical distribution implies a great adaptability to different environmental conditions; the only requisites for its survival are some vegetative cover, a supply of water, and sufficient prey (Schaller 1967). Tigers are normally solitary animals but occasionally travel in groups of four to eight (Schaller 1967). They use different sounds, postures, and gestures to communicate with each other when they are together (Leyhausen 1960).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Of the six subspecies of tiger, the Bengal tiger, P. tigris tigris, occurs throughout India and Indochina (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951). The wide geographical distribution implies a great adaptability to different environmental conditions; the only requisites for its survival are some vegetative cover, a supply of water, and sufficient prey (Schaller 1967). Tigers are normally solitary animals but occasionally travel in groups of four to eight (Schaller 1967).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Chemical Characterization of Territorial Marking Fluid of Male Bengal Tiger, Panthera tigris

Burger

Viviers

Bekker³

et al. 2008

J Chem Ecol

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The territorial marking fluid of the male Bengal tiger, Panthera tigris, consists of a mixture of urine and a small quantity of lipid material that may act as a controlled-release carrier for the volatile constituents of the fluid. Using gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, 98 volatile compounds and elemental sulfur were identified in the marking fluid. Another 16 volatiles were tentatively identified. The majority of these compounds were alkanols, alkanals, 2-alkanones, branched and unbranched alkanoic acids, dimethyl esters of dicarboxylic acids, γ-and δ-lactones, and compounds containing nitrogen or sulfur. Several samples of the marking fluid contained pure (R)-3-methyl-2-octanone, (R)-3-methyl-2-nonanone, and (R)-3-methyl-2-decanone, but these ketones were partly or completely racemized in other samples. The γ-lactone (S)-(+)-(Z)-6-dodecen-4-olide and the C8 to C16 saturated (R)-γ-lactones and (S)-δ-lactones were present in high enantiomeric purities.The chiral carboxylic acids, 2-methylnonanoic acid, 2-methyldecanoic acid, 2-methylundecanoic acid, and 2-ethylhexanoic acid were racemates. Cadaverine, putrescine, and 2-acetylpyrroline, previously reported as constituents of tiger urine, were not detected. The dominant contribution of some ketones, fatty acids, and lactones to the composition of the headspace of the marking fluid suggests that these compounds may be important constituents of the pheromone. Although it constitutes only a small proportion, the lipid fraction of the fluid contained larger quantities of the volatile organic compounds than the aqueous fraction (urine). The lipid derives its role as controlled-release carrier of the chemical message left by the tiger, from its affinity for the volatiles of the marking fluid. Six proteins with masses ranging from 16 to 69 kDa, inter alia, the carboxylesteraselike urinary protein known as cauxin, previously identified in the urine of the domestic cat and other felid species, were identified in the urine fraction of the marking fluid.

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“…Another reason for hunting more Hog deer by tigers could be its solitary in nature. (Schaller 1967) also reported that Hog deer are normally solitary occurring in two or three individuals. Similarly, Common langur (P ≤ 0) in SWR was preyed more than their availability, which was attributed to their solitary nature with occurrence in large groups.…”

Section: Prey Species Constituting the Diet Of Tigermentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This was probably due to fires in grasslands and forests or may be low in numbers, which makes tiger visible to Nilgai. (Schaller 1967) and Karanth and Sunquist 1995) reported that Nilgai are found mostly in open areas near human settlements or relocated village sites, but this types of habitat are unsuitable for tigers to hunt. In addition, Nilgai is very large sized animals, which also makes it unsuitable for tigers to hunt.…”

Section: Prey Species Constituting the Diet Of Tigermentioning

confidence: 99%

Prey Selection By Tiger (Panthera Tigris Tigris) In Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve Nepal

Baniya¹,

Baniya²,

Mou³

et al. 2017

ijSciences

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Predator-prey relationship indicates the status of wildlife conservation. Identifying preys and their contribution to the diets of tigers are important for making conservation meaningful. The main objective of this research was to investigate the distribution pattern of tigers and availability of their preys in the Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (SWR), Far west Nepal. This research mainly focused on distribution and identification of scats, determination of prey species and factors affecting their selection. This study was conducted in SWR of 305 km 2 area in Kanchanpur district, lowland, Far west Nepal. It was gazatted as Royal Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve in 1973. Data were collected through direct field observations and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) method. Relationship between tigers and preys was determined through scats analysis. Data were analyzed with the help of Scatman and vegan through R Software. Prey and habitat selection analysis showed that chital (Axis axis) preferred sal (Shorea robusta) forests while barking (Muntiacus muntjak) and swamp (Rucervus duvauceli) deer were abundant in river sides and fireline/mixed forests respectively. Then, identified eight prey species from 65 scats of which six percent had double preys and 94% single preys. Chital constituted 30% and swamp deer 17% of the total tiger's diet. The population density of chital was the highest (54.10 animals/km 2 ) followed by common langur (25.27 animals/km 2 ), swamp deer (21.50 animals/km 2 ) and hog deer (16.30 animals/km 2 ). Chital, hog deer and langur were preyed significantly (P ≤ 0) higher by tigers indicating positive selection of these species. Swamp deer was preyed significantly low (P > 0) indicating negative selection probably due to its large size. Tigers prefer medium to slightly large prey species like chital of about 55 kg body weight compared to large sized swamp deer and sambar weighing more than 150 and 210 kg respectively in SWR. Since, both tigers and preys are endangered due to poaching and habitat loss, regular monitoring of them is essential to develop the tiger conservation plan.

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The Deer and the Tiger

Cited by 252 publications

References 0 publications

Tool use in wild orang-utans modifies sound production: a functionally deceptive innovation?

Tool use in wild orang-utans modifies sound production: a functionally deceptive innovation?

Chemical Characterization of Territorial Marking Fluid of Male Bengal Tiger, Panthera tigris

Prey Selection By Tiger (Panthera Tigris Tigris) In Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve Nepal

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