The Current Status of the World’s Primates: Mapping Threats to Understand Priorities for Primate Conservation

Abstract

Over the past decades, primate populations have been declining. Four years ago, >60% of species were listed as threatened. As the rate of loss accelerates and new IUCN assessments are being published, we used IUCN Red List assessments and peer-reviewed literature published within the last 5 yr to evaluate the status of primates globally, by region and by taxonomic group. We also examined the main factors affecting a species’ conservation status to determine if we could predict the status of understudied species. We found that 65% of species are in the top three IUCN Red List categories (Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered). Globally, the main threats to primates are Biological Resource Use, including Hunting & Logging, and Agriculture. The impact of these threats varied by region and taxon. Our model showed that Malagasy and Asian primates, and those affected by Agriculture, Human Disturbance, and Climate Change were more likely to be considered at risk of extinction. The model’s predictive probability, however, was low. Our literature analysis showed that some threats, especially climate change and disease, affected more species than indicated by the IUCN Red List. As we move into the next decade, we must continue tackling hunting and agricultural expansion but also be vigilant about emerging threats. We must also aim to regularly test the effectiveness of mitigation strategies, evaluating their long-term adoption and their impact on primates; as well as to increase communication between researchers and applied conservationists to ensure IUCN assessments include current and emerging threats.

Population dynamics of western gorillas at Mbeli Bai

“…Along with other taxa, the order Primates is facing an extinction crisis due to habitat destruction, poaching and illegal activities, disease, and climate change [1][2][3]. To combat this crisis, a key component to conservation efforts is the monitoring of population dynamics [4,5].…”

Principal Drivers and Conservation Solutions to the Impending Primate Extinction Crisis: Introduction to the Special Issue

“…The first article of the special issue by Fernández et al (2021) provides a review and evaluation of the conservation status of primates inhabiting Mexico, Central, and South American, mainland Africa, Madagascar, and Asia; models the primary threats to primate population persistence in each region; and identifies the most prominent emerging drivers of primate population decline. Their results indicate that Madagascar (96.3%) and Asia (83.7%) have the largest proportion of threatened species, and that although industrial agriculture and biological resource use (i.e., hunting, live capture, and logging) are the most prevalent threats to primates worldwide, in Africa human intrusion and climate change negatively impacted ~41% of species, whereas in the Americas, livestock farming and ranching negatively impacted 48% of species.…”

Putting a face on carbon with threatened forest primates

“…First, as our closest relatives, non-human primates, such as gorillas ( Gorilla gorilla and Gorilla beringei ) and chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes ), are often considered well-loved and charismatic. Second, 67% of forest primate species (340 of 505) are threatened with extinction ( SI Appendix , SI Methods ), with tropical deforestation being one of the main contributing factors ( 8 ). Third, some primates can benefit forest regeneration through the ecological mechanism of seed dispersal ( 9 ).…”

“…Admittedly, pairing irrecoverable carbon and primates as an overarching framework has several caveats. First, primates often face several threats in addition to deforestation and habitat loss, including hunting and trapping by humans and disease transmission ( 8 ). While protecting their habitats and the associated irrecoverable carbon stocks can help to mitigate many of these threats, other primate conservation measures are badly needed.…”