The current and future role of nanovaccines in HIV-1 vaccine development

Abstract

Introduction: An efficacious vaccine for HIV-1 has been sought for over 30 years to eliminate the virus from the human population. Many challenges have occurred in the attempt to produce a successful immunogen, mainly caused by the basic biology of the virus. Immunogens have been developed focusing on inducing one or more of the following types of immune responses; neutralizing antibodies, non-neutralizing antibodies, and T-cell mediated responses. One way to better present and develop an immunogen for HIV-1 is through the use of nanotechnology and nanoparticles.Areas covered: This article gives a basic overview of the HIV-1 vaccine field, as well as nanotechnology, specifically nanovaccines. It then covers the application of nanovaccines made from biological macromolecules to HIV-1 vaccine development for neutralizing antibodies, non-neutralizing antibodies, and T-cell-mediated responses. Expert opinion: Nanovaccines are an area that is ripe for further exploration in HIV-1 vaccine field. Not only are nanovaccines capable of carrying and presenting antigens in native-like conformations, but they have also repeatedly been shown to increase immunogenicity over recombinant antigens alone. Only through further research can the true role of nanovaccines in the development of an efficacious HIV-1 vaccine be established.

Conserved multiepitope vaccine constructs: A potent HIV-1 therapeutic vaccine in clinical trials

“…Although ATI is not without risks and has ethical and public health concerns, it remains a main component in clinical trial efficacy studies. 89 , 99 Among all the mentioned trials, 14 of them had no ATI period. In addition, further assays need to be developed and validated so that they can be used for monitoring the impact of a potential therapy on clinical parameters such as the HIV reservoirs, viral replication and CD4 + count.…”

“…Nanotechnology represents a potential solution for development of immunogens in HIV-1 vaccines. 89 Recently, the Nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted a special interest for development of HIV-1 subunit vaccines. New NP platforms are now used to improve immunization strategies against HIV-1 infection.…”

“…These nanovaccines can be engineered to present antigens on their surface to increase immunogenicity and/ or deliver soluble antigens or immunostimulatory molecules in their cores to enhance the efficiency of vaccine. 89 However, further researches are required to use nanoparticles in the development of an effective and safe HIV-1 multiepitope vaccine in clinical trials.…”

Periodic Mesoporous Organosilica as a Nanoadjuvant for Subunit Vaccines Elicits Potent Antigen-Specific Germinal Center Responses by Activating Naive B Cells

“…The germinal center (GC) is the center of B cell clonal expansion, somatic hypermutation, affinity-based selection, and the production of high-affinity antibodies. , However, satisfactory antigen delivery to lymph node (LN) and activation of APCs (dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages, and B cells) remain major concerns for protein subunit-based vaccines. Presenting protein antigens on the surface of nanoparticles (NPs) is a promising approach, as NPs can more effectively transport and accumulate in distinct compartments of the LN, and a multivalent antigen display on the surface of NPs can more effectively engage and cross-link low-affinity B cell receptors (BCRs) on naive B cells and even use B cells instead of DCs for antigen presentation to initiate the T cell response, thus enabling GC formation. − NPs can now be roughly divided into two categories that include self-assembling protein NPs such as ferritin, heat shock protein, or the E2 subunit of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and synthetic NPs such as lipid-based, inorganic, and polymeric NPs . Both types of NPs exhibit enhanced immunogenicity relative to soluble antigens that protect against several diseases, including AIDS, influenza, and COVID-19. − However, these nanoparticle-based vaccines typically need to be immunized with other adjuvants such as AddaVax, ISCOMATRIX, and Sigma Adjuvant System (SAS) adjuvant, etc., − and the mechanism underlying the induction of GC responses by these adjuvants and nanovaccines remains poorly understood.…”

“…7−9 NPs can now be roughly divided into two categories that include selfassembling protein NPs such as ferritin, heat shock protein, or the E2 subunit of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and synthetic NPs such as lipid-based, inorganic, and polymeric NPs. 10 Both types of NPs exhibit enhanced immunogenicity relative to soluble antigens that protect against several diseases, including AIDS, influenza, and COVID-19. 11−13 However, these nanoparticle-based vaccines typically need to be immunized with other adjuvants such as AddaVax, ISCOMA-TRIX, and Sigma Adjuvant System (SAS) adjuvant, etc., 14−16 and the mechanism underlying the induction of GC responses by these adjuvants and nanovaccines remains poorly understood.…”