The Contribution of Different Components of Working Memory to Knowledge Transformation During Writing

Abstract

Outlining probably represents the most common strategy recommended to help novice writers improve their writing. However, although good evidence exists that it has beneficial effects, much less is known about how it achieves these effects. In this paper, we examine how ideas are developed during outlining and how this is related to the quality of the text that is subsequently produced. We focus particularly on how the different processes are coordinated in working memory and on the differences between more and less experienced writers, and consider the implications for educational practice. Two groups of writers, differing in educational level, were asked to write argumentative essays about a discussion topic. In order to investigate the contribution of different components of working memory to outlining, secondary tasks designed to load on the central executive and visual-spatial sketchpad components of working memory were imposed during outlining. Effects of educational level and secondary tasks on the ways novice writers generated and organized their ideas during outlining, and on the resulting quality of the text, were measured. The results suggest that the beneficial effects of planning on text content depend on the extent to which new ideas are introduced during the organizational phase of planning and on the extent to which rhetorical goals are incorporated in planning. However, less experienced writers showed much less evidence of this kind of knowledge-transforming activity during outlining, and we suggest that this aspect of outlining should be the target of educational interventions. Secondary-task effects suggested that the central executive and the spatial component of the visuo-spatial sketchpad play significant, but different roles in the transformation of knowledge, with the spatial component having a specific effect on the generation of new ideas during the organizational phase of planning. We suggest that teaching interventions with novice writers should therefore include attention to the spatial properties of outlines. Finally, some evidence indicates that, although outlining has a beneficial effect on content for all writers, it may reduce the quality of verbal expression for less experienced writers. We suggest that this aspect of their writing needs to be closely monitored. Furthermore, more research into the detailed nature of the processes involved in turning plans into text needs to be conducted.

Effects of writing beliefs and planning on writing performance

“…It follows that manipulating the extent to which high-level problem solving can be carried out during writing should enable the contrasting predictions of the two hypotheses to be tested. Previous research (Galbraith et al, 2005;Kellogg, 1988Kellogg, , 1994) has consistently shown that making an outline before writing leads to improved text quality. It is assumed that this is because separating explicit planning and organizing processes from detailed text production reduces the cognitive load during writing, and enables writers to carry out high-level problem solving more effectively.…”

“…Previous research has suggested that making an outline before writing enables writers to carry out higher-level problem solving more effectively than when writing is not pre-planned and hence is typically associated with the production of higher quality text (Galbraith, Ford, Walker & Ford, 2005;Kellogg, 1988Kellogg, , 1994. We will argue that the two hypotheses make different predictions about the effect that outlining will have for writers with different writing beliefs.…”

Write between the lines: Electronic outlining and the organization of text ideas

“…Probably the most recommended planning strategy for novice writers is outlining (Galbraith, Ford, Walker, & Ford, 2005;Hayes, 2006). Following Walvoord et al (1995) outlining is the process of producing ''a written vertical list of ideas or information in the sequence that the writer intends for the final piece of writing' ' (p. 400).…”

“…This type of planning has, broadly, two functions. First, it can facilitate idea generation and retrieval and second, it allows writers to organize and elaborate their ideas into structured arrangements (Englert, Zhao, Dunsmore, Collings, & Wolbers, 2007;Galbraith et al, 2005). It helps a writer to think -at an early stage in the writing process -about the organization and structure of a desired product and/or the steps that need to be followed (Hayes & Nash, 1996).…”

A tudás szerveződésének vizsgálata fogalmazásban és grafikus ábrázolásban

“…Ennek a kettősfolyamat-modellnek a lényege az, hogy a tudás létrejöttét a szövegben folyamatként fogja fel, amely folyamat az író belső tudásából, illetve a létrehozott kijelentéseinek sorozatából szintetizálódik. Gailbraith, Ford, Walker és Ford (2005) tanulmányaikban bizonyítékot találtak arra is, hogy a vázlatkészítés (outline planning) folyamán a retorikai célok kielégítésére létrehozott új gondolatok magasabb szövegminőséggel járnak, de ezt csökkenthetik a másodlagos feladatok (újragondolás, a szavak előhívása), amelyek terhelik a munkamemória központi végrehajtó és területi komponenseit, így lassítják a folyamatos gondolatmenetet.…”