The Co-Development of Parenting Stress and Childhood Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

Abstract

Although the detrimental influence of parenting stress on child problem behavior is well established, it remains unknown how these constructs affect each other over time. In accordance with a transactional model, this study investigates how the development of internalizing and externalizing problems is related to the development of parenting stress in children aged 4–9. Mothers of 1582 children participated in three one-year interval data waves. Internalizing and externalizing problems as well as parenting stress were assessed by maternal self-report. Interrelated development of parenting with internalizing and externalizing problems was examined using Latent Growth Modeling. Directionality of effects was further investigated by using cross-lagged models. Parenting stress and externalizing problems showed a decrease over time, whereas internalizing problems remained stable. Initial levels of parenting stress were related to initial levels of both internalizing and externalizing problems. Decreases in parenting stress were related to larger decreases in externalizing problems and to the (stable) course of internalizing problems. Some evidence for reciprocity was found such that externalizing problems were associated with parenting stress and vice versa over time, specifically for boys. Our findings support the transactional model in explaining psychopathology.

Parenting Stress Among Caregivers of Children With Bipolar Spectrum Disorders

“…As expected, child mania and anxiety symptoms, and presence of any disruptive behavior disorder, were associated with increased caregiver stress (e.g., Anderson, 2008; Bussing et al 2003a; Bussing et al, 2003b; Deater-Deckard, 2004; Stone et al, 2016; Vaughan et al, 2013). These problem areas likely exacerbate parenting stress in different ways.…”

“…While the relationship between parenting stress and childhood psychopathology appears to be transactional (Mackler et al, 2015; Stone, Mares, Otten, Engels, & Janssens, 2016), and thus the directionality of effects is not well understood, several predictors of caregiver burden have been identified, including: children’s symptom severity, functional impairment, and type of mental illness; and parents’ age, race/ethnicity, psychiatric history, and perceived amount of social support (Mendenhall & Mount, 2011). Specifically, parenting stress is more pronounced if caregivers are older (Schoeder & Remer, 2007), Caucasian (McCabe, Yeh, Lau, Garland, & Hough, 2003), psychiatrically impaired (Angold et al, 1998), with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms (Algorta et al, 2014; Wiener, Biondic, Grimbos, & Herbert, 2016), depressive symptoms (Theule, Wiener, Tannock, & Jenkins, 2013), or lower perceived social support (Schoeder & Remer, 2007).…”

“…Specifically, parenting stress is more pronounced if caregivers are older (Schoeder & Remer, 2007), Caucasian (McCabe, Yeh, Lau, Garland, & Hough, 2003), psychiatrically impaired (Angold et al, 1998), with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms (Algorta et al, 2014; Wiener, Biondic, Grimbos, & Herbert, 2016), depressive symptoms (Theule, Wiener, Tannock, & Jenkins, 2013), or lower perceived social support (Schoeder & Remer, 2007). Child characteristic predictors of parenting stress include greater functional impairment (Angold et al, 1998), more severe psychiatric symptoms (Angold et al, 1998; Yatchmenoff et al, 1998), increased Tourette’s disorder symptoms (Schoeder & Remer, 2007; Stewart, Greene, Lessov-Schlaggar, Church, & Schlaggar, 2015), externalizing behaviors (Algorta et al, 2014; Anderson, 2008; Bussing et al, 2003a; Bussing et al, 2003b; Mackler et al, 2015; McDonald, Gregoire, Poertner, & Early, 1997; Stone et al, 2016; Theule et al, 2013; Tzang, Change, & Liu, 2009; Vaughan, Feinn, Bernard, Brereton, & Kaufman, 2013), and high rates of internalizing symptoms (Bussing et al, 2003a; Bussing et al 2003b; Deater-Deckard, 2004; Stone et al, 2016; Vaughan et al, 2013). …”

Women’s mental health following the birth of a child: a life course approach

“…There is little known about whether mothers' mental health could be affected by the stress of having children with behavioural and mental health problems. Studies have reported a reciprocal association between maternal stress and child externalising behaviours (Stone et al, 2016) as well as an association between psychopathology in daughters and long-term depression experienced by mothers (Sellers et al, 2016). The possibility of a reverse causal pathway between child and adolescent behaviour problems and women's mental health impairment over time will be investigated.…”

“…They suggested that child behaviour affected parenting behaviour and visa-versa, with children's conduct problems being associated with decreased parental warmth and harsher parenting (Hipwell et al, 2008). Reciprocity between children's externalizing behaviours and parenting stress has been also found (Stone et al, 2016). While family stress has been identified as an environmental risk factor associated with youth psychopathology (Hammen et al, 2004), it is possible that child behaviour problems also contribute to stress levels within the family.…”