“The city of Hepar”: Rituals, gastronomy, and politics at the origins of the modern names for the liver

Abstract

Summary Medical etymology sometimes provides unexpected information about health concepts and medical practice in different times and cultures. We conducted an etymological analysis of the terms used to indicate “liver” in Germanic and Romance languages. The Greek word “hèpar” was originally connected to the concept of “pleasure”, showing that in antiquity the liver was considered to be the seat of soul and human feelings. In Romance languages, the Latin term “ficatum” was linked to the ancient practice of fattening geese with figs (ficus in Latin) to make their livers more delicious. This relationship between the liver, fat, and carbohydrates seems to indicate that ancient gourmets had clear knowledge of the nutritional mechanisms underlying “fatty liver” in animals. On the other hand, the Germanic term “lifere” was initially connected to “life”, underscoring the relation of the liver to health and existence. In the Early Modern Age, the liver became a recurring image in political reflection, especially within the Elizabethan tradition of the body politic, where the king was frequently described as the “liver” of his country. Finally, the liver was used to indicate courage, or the lack of it: some modern French and English idiomatic expressions derive from the ancient belief that people who had no blood in their liver (“lily-livered”) would thus be cowards or betrayers.

The Neurologist in Dante's <b><i>Inferno</i></b>

“…Literature can often provide unexpected information on the state of medical knowledge in a specific historical period, specially in ancient times [22,23]. In particular, Dante's works represent a precious source of information on all the medieval life and culture, including healing arts, likely also because of his educational background.…”

“I Miss My Liver.” Nonmedical Sources in the History of Hepatocentrism

“…In 2011, Riva et al() gave evidence that the etymology of terms commonly used to indicate the liverin modern languages might provide important information on the significance attributed to this organ in past populations. The term “hepa,” which is the basis of the scientific words used to describe items related to the liver, such as “hepatitis” and “hepatology,” derives from the Ancient Greek word “hèpar” (η′παρ), which according to Tiniakos et al() may arise from the word “hedoné” (‘ηδονη′), meaning “pleasure.” In being one of the key emotions experienced by the human soul, “pleasure” alludes to this initial belief that the liver housed the human soul with its complex emotions.…”

“…() The connection between liver and warmth is well evidenced in the Latin term “iecur.” In detail, ancient Romans indicated the liver with this word, which Isidore of Seville (560‐636) connected to another Latin word, “ignis” (i.e., fire). () According to the theory of the four elements by the Greek philosopher Empedocles (c. 490‐c. 430 BC), fire was mostly present in the yellow bile, which was said to reside in the liver.…”

“…It should be mentioned that the Latin word “iecur” has now disappeared in modern Romance languages; indeed, the term “fegato” (Italian), “foie” (French), and “higado” (Spanish) derive from the Latin adjective “ficatum,” used to indicate the liver of an animal fattened with figs. () Finally, the English term “liver” seems to derive from the Anglo‐Saxon word “lifere.” Similar words to indicate the liver can be found in other Northern European languages, such as German (“Leber”), Icelandic (“lifur”), Dutch, Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian (“lever”). All of these terms, including the Anglo‐Saxon word “lifere,” seem to closely resemble the English verb “to live,” underscoring the relation of the liver to life in populations influenced by the Celtic culture.…”

Promethean and Tityean hepatic regeneration, unveiling hepar's myth. Post mortem observation, surgical ascertainment, or just fiction?

“…Some scholars believe that the word was also spelled as "hedar", the same root of "hedon" (Greek: ηδονή, pleasure). Some ancient Greeks medico-philosophers believed that hepar was the centre of the soul, most probably driven by the understanding of its significant role for the human body to preserve its homeostasis [1][2][3][4]. Hippocrates (ca 460-370 BC) was the first physician to describe hepatitis, and to operate hepatic abscesses [5], while Aretaeus (ca 1 st century BC, or 4 th century AD) was operating hepatic malignancies [6].…”